A strain of Ascochyta agropyrina var. nana, a fungal pathogen of the perennial weed Elytrigia repens, producedseveral toxins in a liquid medium, and its primary toxin, named agropyrenol, was characterized asa substituted salicylaldehyde on the basis of its chemical and spectroscopic properties. Its absolute stereochemistrywas determined by Mosher's method. Two other minor metabolites were isolated from thesame culture and named agropyrenal and agropyrenone, respectively. They were characterized as a trisubstitutednaphthalene carbaldehyde and a pentasubstituted 3H-benzofuranone, respectively, using thesame techniques. When assayed on leaves of several weed plants, i.e., Mercurialis annua, Chenopodiumalbum and Setaria viridis, agropyrenol proved to be phytotoxic, causing the appearance of necrotic lesions,agropyrenal was less active, while agropyrenone was inactive. None of the compounds showed antibiotic,fungicidal or zootoxic activity.

Among the woody and shrubby weeds colonising non-crop areas in the Apulia Region(South Italy), Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven), an exotic invasive species, is one ofthe worst, because of its fast growth and root-sucker production. It reaches the heart ofprotected areas and spreads everywhere in urban and peri-urban areas creating densestands. As there are no official monitoring protocols for weed mapping, a method basedon real-time global positioning system (GPS) on satellite maps was set up. Due to thismethod, the distribution, spread, size, density and harmfulness of A. altissima wereassessed across the wide urban area of Bari (South Italy) by mapping all the individualplants and areas/stands of plants. In Bari, along a total of 76 km of roads mapped, 170very large (diameter .18 cm), 231 large (diameter 8-18 cm), 130 medium (diameter3-8 cm), 53 small (diameter , 3 cm) single plants, and 70 high, 63 medium and 13 lowdensity areas were detected. This indicated that A. altissima (tree of heaven) was verywidespread in the study area. Moreover, 35 types of damage or potential risks wererecorded covering functional, environmental, health and safety and aesthetic aspectsand then classified according to frequency and location. The real-time GPS methodproved to be very useful for providing a speedy and accurate record of the data.

Antioxidant defence responses were evaluated in Chenopodium album plants treated with a mixture of the phytotoxins ascaulitoxin, 2,4,7-triamino-5-hydroxyoctandioic acid (ascaulitoxin aglycone) and trans-4-aminoproline, produced by the pathogenic fungus Ascochyta caulina, previously proposed as mycoherbicide for this noxious weed. The enzymatic and non-enzymatic effects of these phytotoxins on the ascorbate system and on catalase activity were assessed by evaluating their biological and specific activities through spectrophotometric and electrophoretic analyses. In addition, the oxidative status was monitored through evaluating H2O2 content during the time-course. The mixture of toxins induced high levels of H2O2 accumulation resulting in an oxidative burst in the plant cells. Ascorbate peroxidase and catalase had crucial roles in detoxifying H2O2. The persisting metabolic perturbations, however, led to severe necrosis and death of C. album plants. The induced H2O2 production may be generated by the fungus as part of its necrotrophic nature. This study explains the defence responses in C. album to the mycoherbicide, in particular, the ascorbate systems' components and H2O2 as an index of oxidative stress.

Le leguminose sono da state sempre in Puglia di primaria importanza, tanto nell'agricoltura che per l'alimentazione. Negli ultimi decenni c'era stato un lento declino di queste colture, con un progressivo decremento delle superfici coltivate. Con l'avvento della nuova PAC le superfici coltivate sono nuovamente e grandemente aumentate, dovendo le aziende ottemperare l'obbligo della diversificazione colturale; spesso,trattandosi di zone non irrigue, le leguminose costituiscono la più importante, se non l'unica, possibilità di alternanza con i cereali, tra i quali il frumento duro e l'orzo sono i predominanti. Tali nuove situazioni colturali stanno comportando, e lo faranno sempre più in futuro, la comparsa di problemi sopiti o sottovalutati, come la presenza della pericolosissima specie infestante parassita Orobanche crenata Forsk. Una breve panoramica sulla dannosità di questa specie e le attuali e future possibilità di contenimento vengono illustrate.

Two new furopyrans, named chenopodolans E and F (1 and 2), were isolated from the liquid culture of Phoma chenopodiicola, a fungal pathogen proposed for the biological control of Chenopodium album, a common worldwide weed of arable crops. They were characterized using spectroscopic methods as 3-(3-methoxy-2,6-dimethyl-7aH-furo[2,3b]pyran-4-yl)-but-2-enoic acid methyl ester and 1-(3-methoxy-2,6-dimethyl-7aH-furo[2,3b]pyran-4-yl)-ethanone, respectively. Furthermore, the absolute configuration of chenopodolan B (3) was established to be (7aR,9S) by a combined application of the advanced Mosher's method and of quantum mechanical calculations of chiroptical (ECD and ORD) properties. When 1 and 2 were assayed on punctured leaves at 2??g/?L, only 2 was active on Sonchus arvensis while 1 caused around 75% larval mortality on Artemia salina larvae at 0.1??g/?L.

Host root derived signals trigger the germination of seeds of obligate root parasitic weeds. Among these, strigolactones (SLs), a class of plant hormones, are the major natural germination stimulants in the rhizosphere. The early growth stages of parasitic plant development - such as seed germination, host attachment, and tubercle development - are key stages for establishing a successful parasitic interaction and are therefore ideal targets for controlling root parasitic weeds. Soil microorganisms and natural bioactive compounds interfering with these early stages of the parasite life cycle could be used as novel tools for management strategies. Our knowledge on the mechanism of SLs as signaling molecules during specific interactions in the rhizosphere is currently limited to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and parasitic plant seeds. By contrast, the role of plant secreted SLs in regulating the growth and development of plant pathogenic fungi remains controversial. Root colonizing fungi can influence crop productivity either negatively by causing disease, or positively by enhancing plant growth. The production of plant hormones and growth regulators appears to be an important mechanism by which fungal endophytes improve plant growth and yield under stressful conditions. Fusarium oxysporum (F. o.) is a cosmopolitan species that survives in the soil as a saprophyte by thriving on dead or decaying organic matter. Some representatives also behave as plant pathogens causing vascular wilt disease in different crops, or as biocontrol agents, both as endophytes inducing systemic resistance and as enhancers of soil suppressiveness. F. o. has been suggested to be able to detect and degrade SLs, thereby preventing seed germination of parasitic weeds. Previous studies revealed that F. o. hyphae can sense and reorient their growth towards a variety of chemical signals including compounds from the host plant2. To understand how F. o. senses and degrades SLs, we used a quantitative chemotropism assay on agar plates with different synthetic and natural SLs (e.g. GR24, strigol, 5-deoxystrigol and 4-deoxyorobanchol) as chemoattractant signals. We found that F. o. is able to chemotropically sense SLs, and that this process requires elements of a conserved fungal mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade.

Three tetrasubstituted furopyrans, named chenopodolans A-C, were isolated together with the well known fungal metabolite (-)-(R)-6-hydroxymellein from the liquid culture of Phoma chenopodiicola, a fungal pathogen proposed for the biological control of Chenopodium album, a common worldwide weed of arable crops. The structures of chenopodolans A-C were established by spectroscopic and chemical methods as 2-(3-methoxy-2,6-dimethyl-7aH-furo[2,3-b]pyran-4-yl)- butane-2,3-diol, 1-(3-methoxy-2,6-dimethyl-7aH-furo[2,3-b]pyran-4-yl)ethanol and 3-methoxy-2,6-dimethyl-4-(1-methylpropenyl)-7aH-furo[2,3-b]pyran, respectively. The absolute configuration R to the hydroxylated secondary carbon (C-11) of the side chain at C-4 of chenopodolan A was determined by applying an advanced Mosher's method. Assayed by leaf puncture on host and non-host weeds chenopodolans A and B, and the 11-O-acetylchenopodolan A showed a strong phytotoxicity. These results showed that the nature of the side chain attached to C-4 is an important feature for the phytotoxicity. A weak zootoxic activity was only showed by chenopodolan B.©; 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A new tetrasubstituted indolylidenpyrandione named colletopyrandione (1), together with a tetrasubstituted chroman- and a tetrasubstituted isocroman-3,5-diol, named colletochlorins G and H (2, 3), respectively, were isolated from the culture filtrates of the fungus Colletotrichum higginsianum together with the already known colletochlorin A, 4-chloroorcinol, colletopyrone and colletochlorins E and F. Colletopyrandione and the two new colletochlorins (G and H) were characterized as (Z)-3-(3-hydroxy-3-methylindolin-2-ylidene)-5,6-dimethyl-pyran-2,4-dione, 8-chloro-2,2,7-trimethyl-chroman-3,5-diol and 8-chloro-1,1,7-trimethyl-isochroman-3,5-diol, respectively, by spectroscopic (NMR and HRESIMS) methods. The relative configuration of 1 was assigned by X-ray diffractometric analysis. Colletopyrandione was isolated as scalemic mixture and the absolute configuration of the most abundant enantiomer was assigned by ECD and VCD spectra combined with quantum-mechanical calculations. Assayed in several biological systems, colletopyrandione showed a modest phytotoxic activity, associated to a complete lack of toxicity towards off-target organisms.

A new tetrasubstituted pyran-2-one and a new dihydrobenzofuran, named colletochlorins E and F (1 and 2), were isolated from the culture filtrates of the fungus Colletotrichum higginsianum together with the already known colletochlorin A, 4-chloroorcinol and colletopyrone. Colletochlorins E, the main metabolite, and F were characterized by spectroscopic (NMR, HRESIMS) and chemical methods as 3-[7-chloro-4-hydroxy-2-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-6-methyl-2,3-dihydro-benzofuran-5-ylmethyl]-4-hydroxy-5,6-dimethyl-pyran-2-one, and 7-chloro-2-(1-hydroxy-1-methylethyl)-6-methyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-4-ol. The absolute configuration 2?S of 1 was deduced by X-ray diffractometric analysis while that 2S of 2 was deduced by comparison of its NMR and CD data with those of 1. When assayed by leaf puncture on Sonchus arvensis and tomato leaves, 2 caused quite large necrosis (wider than 1 cm) while 4-chloroorcinol proved to be the most active compound. These results were confirmed to those obtained in the assay on Lemna minor and on Phelipanche ramosa seed germination. Furthermore, 1, colletochlorin A and colletopyrone were less and modestly active in the last assay, respectively. Interestingly, the phytotoxicity was not associated to an antibiotic activity while only 4-chloroorcinol, colletochlorin F exhibited zootoxic activity.

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle (commonly named tree of haven, family: Simaroubaceae) is a very dangerous invasive plant species. The invasiveness of this dioecious species is due to its ability to reproduce, equally well, both by seed (one plant can produce thousands of "flying" samaras) and asexually (its extended and vigorous root system generates numerous suckers and progeny plants). The species is able to adapt to any type of soil and water regime. It spreads everywhere in urban and sub-urban areas, on roadsides, railways and ruins, in uncultivated or abandoned areas, gardens and green spaces. A. altissima plants reach the heart of natural areas causing severe ecological effects. Plants form highly dense stands outcompeting native species and reducing their growth. Thus this species represents a serious threat both in natural and anthropic areas.The management of A. altissima is very difficult. The most common methods include manual, mechanical and chemical control. Hand pulling can be carried out only on very young seedlings before the root system has developed. Mechanical removal (cut) is the most used technique in public areas but proved to be costly and quite ineffective, as it induces a faster development of suckers and resprouting shoots. Moreover, in urban and archeological areas the use of mechanical equipment can be very dangerous or even not practicable. Spray treatments of herbicides are frequently not allowed in urban and natural areas due to health and environmental risks. The Alta Murgia National Park is a very wide Park (over 68,000 ha) located in the Apulia Region (Southern Italy). It is a Site of Community Importance (SCI) and a Special Protection Area (SPA) within the EU Natura 2000 network. Within the Park, A. altissima is the most spread invasive plant species, and it is considered one of the most serious threat for the biodiversity. A project named "LIFE Alta Murgia" was funded in 2013 by the European Commission within the LIFE+ Framework, aimed at eradicating A. altissima from the Alta Murgia National Park by using innovative and eco-friendly control techniques, based on a minimized use of effective herbicides with environmentally friendly stem applications (e.g. stem injection, cut stump, spaced cut). In order to accurately take a census, map and quantify the infestation in the whole park, plan the interventions, manage the control program and check the progresses of the management practices, a ad hoc software was initially developed.In the present communication the procedures used and the results obtained in the weed mapping will be shown. Moreover, the first results regarding the control treatments and their effectiveness will be presented.

Both weed science and plant invasion science deal with noxious plants. Yet, they have historically developed as two distinct research areas in Europe, with different target species, approaches and management aims, as well as with diverging institutions and researchers involved. We argue that the strengths of these two disciplines can be highly complementary in implementing management strategies and outline how synergies were created in an international, multidisciplinary project to develop efficient and sustainable management of common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia. Because this species has severe impacts on human health and is also a crop weed in large parts of Europe, common ragweed is one of the economically most important plant invaders in Europe. Our multidisciplinary approach combining expertise from weed science and plant invasion science allowed us (i) to develop a comprehensive plant demographic model to evaluate and compare management tools, such as optimal cutting regimes and biological control for different regions and habitat types, and (ii) to assess benefits and risks of biological control. It further (iii) showed ways to reconcile different stakeholder interests and management objectives (health versus crop yield), and (iv) led to an economic model to assess invader impact across actors and domains, and effectiveness of control measures. (v) It also led to design and implement management strategies in collaboration with the various stakeholder groups affected by noxious weeds, created training opportunities for early stage researchers in the sustainable management of noxious plants, and actively promoted improved decision making regarding the use of exotic biocontrol agents at the national and European level. We critically discuss our achievements and limitations, and list and discuss other potential Old World (Afro-Eurasian) target species that could benefit from applying such an integrative approach, as typical invasive alien plants are increasingly reported from crop fields and native crop weeds are invading adjacent non-crop land, thereby forming new source populations for further spread.

Cavoxin is a tetrasubstituted phytotoxic chalcone and cavoxone is the correponding chroman-4-one, bothproduced in vitro by Phoma cava, a fungus isolated from chestnut. Cavoxin showed biofungicidepotential against fungal species responsible of food molding. Therefore, cavoxin has potential to beincorporated into biopolymer to generate a so called "intelligent food packaging". To reach this objectivethe large scale production of cavoxin by P. cava fermentation need to be optimized. A rapid and efficientmethod for cavoxin analysis, as well as of cavoxone, in the fungal culture filtrates and thecorresponding organic extracts is the first experimental step. Thus, a HPLC method was developed andapplied to quantify cavoxin and cavoxone production in two different fungal culture conditions. Theanalysis proved that cavoxin production in stirred culture filtrates is significantly higher than in staticones.

Green foxtail (Setaria viridis), one of the most common and troublesome weeds worldwide, is becoming very difficult to manage because of the lack of registered herbicides and the appearance of herbicide-resistant populations. Among the new and possible environment-friendly strategies, the use of biological control methods seems to have potential. Drechslera gigantea, Exserohilum rostratum and Exserohilum longirostratum have previously proved to be promising bioherbicide agents against several grass weeds in field trials.While previous studies have established the susceptibility of S. viridis under greenhouse conditions, so far no attempt has been made to establish the effectiveness and feasibility of these fungi as bioherbicides for green foxtail. When spore suspensions were applied as foliar sprays to green foxtail seedlings in a greenhouse, all three fungi caused severe damage by 1 day after application, and seedlings in most cases died within 1 week.The fungi were compatible with several agro-chemicals and host specific when tested against major vegetable crop species grown in the Mediterranean. The demonstrated technological feasibility of producing large amounts of quickly germinable conidia (i.e., asexual spores) on inexpensive solid media increases the potential of these fungi to be used as bioherbicides.

Common ragweed, Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. (Asteraceae), an annual weed native to Northern America, has become invasive in numerous countries in Europe. South-central and south-eastern European regions are the most affected. In the western and northern parts of Europe and mountain ranges ragweed does not behave as an invasive weed, yet. Climate change is expected to facilitate the establishment of ragweed as a self-propagating weed in these regions in the near future.The major concern regarding common ragweed is due to its highly allergenic pollen that causes sensitisation of the population, generating huge medical costs. Ragweed also has increasingly become a major weed in European agriculture, especially in spring-sown crops such as sunflower, maize, sugar beet and soya beans. Because of the taxonomic relatedness with sunflower, herbicides are of limited use in this crop, facilitating the spread of Ambrosia throughout Europe in birdseed, other feeding mixtures and crop seed. Herbicides and mechanical control (uprooting, cutting, ploughing) are best suited as local and short-term measures to eradicate initial and small populations, and to mitigate further spread of established populations. In other crops herbicide treatments may be sufficient to prevent yield losses, but often this in not sufficient to prevent ragweed populations from flowering and setting seeds. In non-agricultural land, management of ragweed using herbicides is too expensive and, furthermore, the need to protect the accompanying vegetation does not allow large-scale application of herbicides. Thus, the ragweed population is increasing.Bioactive fungal metabolites have been long considered for their potential direct use as natural herbicides, as a lead for new herbicides or to discover novel mechanisms of action. The authors of this article have a long history and a strong expertise in the production and chemical and biological characterization of novel bioactive metabolites from microorganisms and plants. However, despite the enormous number of novel metabolites identified and available in their labs, none of them has ever been tested against A. artemisiifolia. Thus, a number of selected metabolites produced and purified by the culture of pathogenic fungi and plants was used in preliminary tests to evaluate their effects on the germination of ragweed seeds, the elongation of seedling rootlets and on the development of necrotic spots on leaves. The present communication reports the first results of these biological assays, discussing the potential use of the most interesting metabolites as natural herbicides for ragweed management.

Ascaulitoxin and its aglycone (2,4,7-triamino-5-hydroxyoctanoic acid, CAS 212268-55-8) are potentphytotoxins produced by Ascochyta caulina, a plant pathogen being developed for biocontrol of weeds.The mode of action of this non-protein amino acid was studied on Lemna paucicostata. Ascaulitoxin isa potent growth inhibitor, with an I50 for growth of less than 1 lM, almost completely inhibiting growthat about 3 lM. Its action is slow, starting with growth inhibition, followed by darker green fronds, andthen chlorosis and death. Most amino acids, including non-toxic non-protein amino acids, reversed theeffect of the toxin when supplemented in the same medium. Supplemental sucrose slightly increasedthe activity. D-Amino acids were equally good inhibitors of ascaulitoxin activity, indicating the amino acideffects may not be due to inhibition of amino acid synthesis. Oxaloacetate, the immediate precursor ofaspartate, also reversed the activity. LC-MS did not detect interaction of the compound with lysine, anamino acid that strongly reversed the effect of the phytotoxin. Metabolite profiling revealed that thetoxin caused distinct changes in amino acids. Reduction in alanine, paralleled by enhanced levels ofthe branched chain amino acids valine, leucine and isoleucine and nearly unchanged levels of pyruvate,might indicate that the conversion of pyruvate to alanine is affected by ascaulitoxin aglycone. In addition,reduced levels of glutamate/glutamine and aspartate/asparagine might suggest that synthesis andinterconversion reactions of these amino group donors are affected. However, neither alanine aminotransferasenor alanine: glyoxylate aminotransferase were inhibited by the toxin in vitro. Our observationsmight be explained by three hypotheses: (1) the toxin inhibits one or more aminotransferasesnot examined, (2) ascaulitoxin aglycone affects amino acid transporters, (3) ascaulitoxin aglycone is aprotoxin that is converted in vivo to an aminotransferase inhibitor.

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) caused by plant pathogens can develop into unexpected and very serious epidemics, owing to the influence of various characteristics of the pathogen, host and environment. Devastating epidemics, having social implications by increasing the rate of urbanization,occurred in the past in Europe, and many other EIDs still occur with high frequency in developing countries.Although the ability to diagnose diseases and the technologies available for their control are far greater than in the past, EIDs are still able to cause tremendous crop losses, the economic and social impact of which, in developing countries, is often underestimated. In the present article, four of the most important EIDs in developing countries are considered from the standpoint of their origin, characteristics, symptoms, mode of spread, possible control strategies, economic impact and the socio-economic consequences of their dissemination. They are Cassava Mosaic Virus Disease, capable of reducing yields by 80-90% and causing the suspension of cassava cultivation in many areas of East Africa; Striga hermonthica, a parasitic weed affectingcereals in an area of at least 5 million hectares in Sub-Saharan Africa; Xanthomonas Wilt of Banana, a bacterial disease that caused around 50% yield losses at the beginning of 21st century in Uganda and is threatening the food security of about 70 million people owing to its impact on an important staple crop; and race Ug99 of the rust fungus Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, which is having a tremendous impact on wheat in Uganda, and is also threatening most of the wheat-growing countries of the world.

Inuloxin A is a promising plant phytotoxic sesquiterpene that deserve further studies to evaluate its potential as a bioherbicide. However, its low solubility in water and bioavailability could hamper its practical application. For this reason, inuloxin A was complexed with ?-cyclodextrins by using three different methods, i.e.: kneading, co-precipitation and grinding. The resulted complexes were fully characterized by different techniques as 1H NMR, UV-vis, XRD, DSC and SEM, and biologically assayed in comparison with the pure compound in several biological systems. The efficacy of the kneading and grinding complexes was similar to inuloxin A and almost completely inhibit the Phelipanche ramosa seed germination. The complete solublity in the water and the preservation of the biological properties of these two complexes could allow further studies to develop a novel natural herbicide for parasitic plant management based on these formulations.

Ailanthus altissima (l'albero del paradiso) è una tra le più diffuse e dannose specie aliene invasive che colonizzano le aree extra-agricole. E' una specie arborea che si accresce in qualunque tipo di habitat urbano, periurbano e naturale creando densi popolamenti monospecifici e causando numerosi danni tra cui la perdita della biodiversità. Il controllo della specie è molto difficile a causa dell'elevato tasso di crescita e dell'inefficacia degli interventi meccanici. Il Progetto LIFE Alta Murgia è stato recentemente finanziato dalla Commissione Europea con lo scopo di eradicare la specie dal Parco Nazionale dell'Alta Murgia mediante l'utilizzo di tecniche innovative a basso impatto ambientale. Le caratteristiche principali della specie e le finalità del Progetto vengono descritte in questo articolo.

Fungal phytotoxins are natural secondary metabolites produced by plant pathogenic fungi during host-pathogen interactions. They have received considerable particular attention for elucidating disease etiology, and consequently to design strategies for disease control. Due to wide differences in their chemical structures, these toxic metabolites have different ecological and environmental roles and mechanisms of action. This review aims at summarizing the studies on the possible use of thesemetabolites as tools in biological and integrated weed management, e.g. as: novel and environmentally friendly herbicideslead for novel compounds; sources of novel mechanisms of action. Moreover, the limiting factors for utilizing those metabolites in practice will also be briefly discussed.

Fungal pathogens and insects for biological control of weeds: potential, limitations and prospects of joint use.Several studies have been carried out in order to evaluate the potential of joint release of insects and pathogens for biological control of weeds. Some examples are here reported, with the aim of briefly illustrating the possible interactions, both positive and negative, and their perspectives of application, in the light of the increased knowledge of plant-pathogens interactions.

Le piante parassite rappresentano un mondo a parte nell'universo delle piante infestanti. Esse possiedono alcune caratteristiche biologiche, morfologiche, fisiologiche ed ecologiche che le rendono diverse da tutte le altre specie infestanti, e che influiscono grandemente sulle possibili strategie di gestione. In questa comunicazione viene brevemente illustrato il ciclo vitale delle piante parassite, con riferimento alle orobanche, e le prospettive di gestione.

Le piante infestanti sono tra i principali impedimenti per molte attività umane e la loro gestione rappresenta tuttora uno dei principali costi in ambito agrario, forestale e urbano. L'applicazione di agenti patogeni e artropodi, ritenuto un intervento importante di gestione ecocompatibile delle piante infestanti da affiancare o talvolta per sostituire i tradizionali metodi di gestione delle infestanti, si avvale di organismi fitofagi e/o fitopatogeni capaci di attenuare l'effetto dannoso di specie vegetali bersaglio senza danneggiare le specie non-bersaglio, come quelle coltivate o indigene. Questo intervento biologico di controllo è realizzato principalmente mediante il cosiddetto metodo "classico" e il metodo inondativo. Risultati molto incoraggianti sono stati ottenuti negli anni '60-'70 del secolo scorso soprattutto mediante un approccio classico del controllo biologico principalmente contro le specie infestanti aliene di pascoli o foreste. Contemporaneamente anche alcuni micoerbicidi sono stati registrati e utilizzati. Negli ultimi decenni si è assistito a un rinnovato interesse in specifiche condizioni colturali e naturali anche come conseguenza di un'aumentata domanda nella riduzione dell'impiego dei prodotti di sintesi per le produzioni alimentari e negli ecosistemi naturali, della recente legislazione che sta mettendo al bando alcuni erbicidi di sintesi o ne limita la loro applicazione, di un incremento dei consumi di prodotti agricoli e agro-industriali biologici, di costi progressivamente più elevati per lo sviluppo e la registrazione di nuove molecole, dell'insorgenza di resistenze agli erbicidi di sintesi, dell'impossibilità di utilizzare prodotti di sintesi in ambienti naturali o antropizzati, della necessità di controllare infestanti non-agrarie seppure invasive.Una volta forniti gli elementi di base per la comprensione dei principi legati al controllo biologico delle piante infestanti, gli Autori, sulla base delle loro specifiche competenze ed esperienze, forniscono un quadro sintetico dei punti di forza e di debolezza propri di queste strategie di controllo. Particolare attenzione è posta agli ambiti applicativi, alla tipologia degli organismi utilizzabili e alle possibili sinergie fra questi, alle problematiche relative alla selezione di questi organismi, alle esigenze di salvaguardia delle specie non-bersaglio e alla metodologia di studio necessaria a tal fine, agli aspetti tecnologici tesi a migliorare i sistemi di produzione, formulazione e applicazione per aumentare stabilità ed efficacia, e nel contempo a ridurre i costi di produzione, al miglioramento genetico, nonché al possibile uso di metaboliti di origine microbica come nuovi erbicidi di origine naturale.

A virulent strain of Diaporthe gulyae, isolated from stem cankers of sunflower and known to be pathogenic to saffron thistle, has been shown to produce both known and previously undescribed metabolites when grown in either static liquid culture or a bioreactor. Together with phomentrioloxin, a phytotoxic geranylcyclohexenetriol recently isolated from a strain of Phomopsis sp., two new phytotoxic trisubstituted ?-pyrones, named gulypyrones A and B (1 and 2), and two new 1,O- and 2,O-dehydro derivatives of phomentrioloxin, named phomentrioloxins B and C (3 and 4), were isolated from the liquid culture filtrates of D. gulyae. These four metabolites were characterized as 6-[(2S)2-hydroxy-1-methylpropyl]-4-methoxy-5-methylpyran-2-one (1), 6-[(1E)-3-hydroxy-1-methylpropenyl]-4-methoxy-3-methylpyran-2-one (2), 4,6-dihydroxy-5-methoxy-2-(7-methyl-3-methyleneoct-6-en-1-ynyl)cyclohex-2-enone (3), and 2,5-dihydroxy-6-methoxy-3-(7-methyl-3-methyleneoct-6-en-1-ynyl)cyclohex-3-enone (4) using spectroscopic and chemical methods. The absolute configuration of the hydroxylated secondary carbon of the 2-hydroxy-1-methylpropyl side chain at C-6 of gulypyrone A was determined as S by applying a modified Mosher's method. Other well-known metabolites were also isolated including 3-nitropropionic, succinic, and p-hydroxy- and p-methylbenzoic acids, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, and nectriapyrone. When assayed using a 5 mM concentration on punctured leaf disks of weedy and crop plants, apart from 3-nitropropionic acid (the main metabolite responsible for the strong phytotoxicity of the culture filtrate), phomentrioloxin B caused small, but clear, necrotic spots on a number of plant species, whereas gulypyrone A caused leaf necrosis on Helianthus annuus plantlets. All other compounds were weakly active or inactive.

Olive quick decline syndrome (OQDS) caused by X. fastidiosa is currently causing severe damages to the production and reducing the life span of the plants in the Salento peninsula of Apulia (Italy). No effective means of control of X. fastidiosa is currently available. The objective of this study was to evaluate in vitro antimicrobial activities against X. fastidiosa (strain Salento-1) of different classes of compounds having diverse origins, i.e. traditional antibiotics, plant-derived natural products, and microbial metabolites. A preliminary bioassay, performed by the agar disc diffusion method, revealed that 17 of the 31 antibiotics tested did not affect bacterial growth at a dose of 5 ?g. Olive mill wastewaters (OMWs), which are known to possess a broad range of antimicrobial activity, are able to inhibit X. fastidiosa in vitro. Most interestingly when we analysed different OMWs derived micro, ultra and nano-filtered fractions as well as some of the single phenolic compounds that they contain, we found that the OMWs micro-filtered fraction is the most effective against the bacterium but only few phenolics are active in their pure form. Also some fungal extracts and bacteria toxins showed noteworthy inhibitory effect to strain Salento-1 growth. The possible use of some of these products for curative/preventive treating OQDS-affected or at-risk olive plants will be discussed.

The in vitro anticancer activity and toxicity of phyllostictine A, a novel oxazatricycloalkenone recently isolatedfrom a plant-pathogenic fungus (Phyllosticta cirsii) was characterized in six normal and five cancer cell lines.Phyllostictine A displays in vitro growth-inhibitory activity both in normal and cancer cells without actualbioselectivity, while proliferating cells appear significantly more sensitive to phyllostictine A than nonproliferatingones. The main mechanism of action by which phyllostictine displays cytotoxic effects in cancercells does not seem to relate to a direct activation of apoptosis. In the same manner, phyllostictine A seems notto bind or bond with DNA as part of its mechanism of action. In contrast, phyllostictine A strongly reacts withGSH, which is a bionucleophile. The experimental data from the present study are in favor of a bondingprocess between GSH and phyllostictine A to form a complex though Michael attack at C=C bond at theacrylamide-like system. Considering the data obtained, two new hemisynthesized phyllostictine A derivativestogether with three other natural phyllostictines (B, C and D) were also tested in vitro in five cancer cell lines.Compared to phyllostictine A, the two derivatives displayed a higher, phyllostictines B and D a lower, andphyllostictine C an almost equal, growth-inhibitory activity, respectively. These results led us to proposepreliminary conclusions in terms of the structure-activity relationship (SAR) analyses for the anticanceractivity of phyllostictine A and its related compounds, at least in vitro.

Olive quick decline syndrome (OQDS) is causing severe damages to the olive trees in Salento (Apulia, Italy) and poses a severe threat for the agriculture of Mediterranean countries. DNA-Based Typing Methods have pointed out that OQDS is caused by a single outbreak strain of Xylella fastidiosa subsp. pauca referred to as CoDiRO or ST53. Since no effective control measures are currently available, the objective of this study was to evaluate in vitro antimicrobial activities of different classes of compounds against Salento-1 isolated by a OQDS affected plant and classified as ST53. A bioassay based on agar disc diffusion method, revealed that 17 out of the 32 tested antibiotics did not affect bacterial growth at a dose of 5 g disk-1. When we assayed micro-, ultra- and nano-filtered fractions of olive mill wastewaters (OMWs) we found that the micro-filtered fraction resulted the most effective against the bacterium. Moreover, some phenolics (4-methylcathecol, cathecol, veratric acid, caffeic acid, oleuropein) were active in their pure form. Noteworthy, also some fungal extracts and fungal toxins showed inhibitory effects on bacterial growth. Some of these compounds can be further explored as potential candidate in future applications for curative/preventive treating OQDS-affected or at-risk olive plants.

Ophiobolin A (O-A) is a sesterpenoid with numerous biological activities, including potential anticancer effects. Its production at an industrial level is hampered due to inability of fungus Bipolaris maydis to biosynthesise it in vitro in large amount. Among the environmental factors regulating fungal metabolism, light plays a crucial role. In this study, the use of different light wavelength (light emitting diodes (LEDs)) was evaluated to increase the O-A production. The white light allowed the highest production of the metabolite. The blue and green lights showed an inhibitory effect, reducing the production to 50%, as well as red and yellow but at a lower level. No correlation between fungal growth and metabolite production was found in relation to the light type. A novel application of LED technologies, which can be optimised to foster specific pathways and promote the production of metabolites having scientific and industrial interest was proposed.

Certain amino acids induce inhibitory effects in plant growth due to feedback inhibition of metabolic pathways. The inhibition patterns depend on plant species and the plant developmental stage. Those amino acids with inhibitory action on specific weeds could be utilized as herbicides, however, their use for weed control has not been put into practice. Orobanche minor is a weed that parasitizes red clover. O. minor germination is stimulated by clover root exudates. The subsequent seedling is an obligated parasite that must attach quickly to the clover root to withdraw its nutrients. Early development of O. minor is vulnerable to amino acid inhibition and therefore, a series of in vitro, rhizotron, and field experiments were conducted to investigate the potential of amino acids to inhibit O. minor parasitism. In in vitro experiments it was found that among a collection of 20 protein amino acids, lysine, methionine and tryptophan strongly interfere with O. minor early development. Field research confirmed their inhibitory effect but revealed that methionine was more effective than lysine and tryptophan, and that two successive methionine applications at 308 and 543 growing degree days inhibited O. minor emergence in red clover up to 67%. We investigated additional effects with potential to influence the practical use of amino acids against broomrape weeds, whether the herbicidal effect may be reversible by other amino acids exuded by host plants or may be amplified by inducing host resistance barriers against O. minor penetration. This paper suggests that amino acids may have the potential to be integrated into biorational programs of broomrape management.

Fourteen metabolites, isolated from phytopathogenic and toxigenic fungi, were evaluated for their in vitro antigrowthactivity for six distinct cancer cell lines, using the MTT colorimetric assay. Bislongiquinolide (1) and dihydrotrichodimerol(5), which belong to the bisorbicillinoid structural class, displayed significant growth inhibitory activity against the sixcancer cell lines studied, while the remaining compounds displayed weak or no activity. The data show that 1 and 5have similar growth inhibitory activities with respect to those cancer cell lines that display certain levels of resistanceto pro-apoptotic stimuli or those that are sensitive to apoptosis. Quantitative videomicroscopy analysis revealed that 1and 5 exert their antiproliferative effect through cytostatic and not cytotoxic activity. The preliminary results from thecurrent study have stimulated further structure-activity investigations with respect to the growth inhibitory activity ofcompounds belonging to the bisorbicillinoid group.

Ascochyta lentis var. lathyri has recently been reported to be the causal agent of Ascochyta blight of grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), a disease characterized by the appearance of necrotic lesions of leaves and stems. Considering the novelty of the pathogen and the possible involvement of secondary metabolites in symptom appearance, a study was carried out to ascertain the capability of this fungus to produce bioactive metabolites. Some phytotoxic phenols were isolated from the culture filtrates of the fungus. In particular, two new phytotoxic metabolites, named lathyroxins A and B, were characterized by spectroscopic methods as 4-(2-hydroxy-3,3-dimethoxypropyl)phenol and 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane-1,2-diol, respectively, and the R absolute configuration of C-2 of their 2-dimethoxy- and 2,3-diol-propyl side chain was assigned. Moreover, other well-known fungal metabolites, namely, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, p-methoxyphenol, and tyrosol, were also identified. Lathyroxins A and B showed interesting phytotoxic properties, being able to cause necrosis on leaves and to inhibit seed germination and rootlet elongation. Moreover, both of the new metabolites had no effect against bacteria, arthropods, and nematodes.

A strain of the pathogenic fungus Ascochyta lentis isolated from lentil (Lens culinaris) was studied to ascertain its capability to produce bioactive metabolites. From the culture filtrates were found three new anthraquinone derivatives, named lentiquinones A (1), B (2), and C (3), and the known lentisone. From the mycelium, four known analogues were identified, namely pachybasin (in larger amount), ?-hydroxypachybasin, 1,7-dihydroxy-3-methylanthracene-9,10-dione, and phomarin. Lentiquinones A-C were characterized by spectroscopic methods as 3,4,6-trihydroxy-8-methyl-2H-benzo[g]chromene-5,10-dione, 2,3,4,5,10-pentahydroxy-7-methyl-3,4,4a,10-tetrahydroanthracen-9(2H)-one, and its 2-epimer, respectively, and the relative configuration of the two latter compounds was deduced by X-ray diffraction data analysis. The absolute configuration of lentiquinones B and C was determined as (2R,3S,4S,4aS,10R) and (2S,3S,4S,4aS,10R), respectively, by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) in solution and solid state, and TDDFT calculations. When tested by using different bioassays, the novel compounds showed interesting activities. In particular, applied to punctured leaves of host and nonhost plants, the three new compounds and lentisone caused severe necrosis, with lentiquinone A being the most active among the new metabolites. On cress (Lepidium sativum), this latter compound proved to be particularly active in inhibiting root elongation. On Lemna minor all the compounds reduced the content of chlorophyll, with 1,7-dihyroxy-3-methylanthracene-9,10-dione being the most active. The new compounds, together with lentisone, proved to have antibiotic properties.

Tra le specie infestanti arboree ed arbustive che colonizzano gli ambienti extra-agricoli Ailanthus altissima, specie esotica invasiva, è tra le più dannose e diffuse a causa del veloce accrescimento e della spiccata attitudine pollonifera. Raggiunge il cuore delle aree naturali protette e si diffonde ovunque nelle aree urbane e peri-urbane creando densi popolamenti. Data la mancanza di un metodo ufficiale di mappatura delle infestanti, al fine di valutare la diffusione, distribuzione e dannosità della specie nelle vaste aree urbane del comune di Bari e del Parco Nazionale dell'Alta Murgia, è stato adottato un sistema di monitoraggio e mappatura supportato da GPS e mappe satellitari. Tutte le piante o le aree di rinvenimento delle stesse sono state mappate in tempo reale, riportando le dimensioni e la densità delle piante. Nell'area urbana e peri-urbana, su un percorso complessivo di circa 76 km, sono state censite 170 piante molto grandi (diametro > 18 cm), 231 grandi (diametro 8-18 cm), 130 medie (diametro 3-8 cm), 53 piccole (diametro < 3 cm), 70 aree ad alta densità di piante, 63 aree mediamente dense e 13 aree con piante sparse. Nel Parco, su una distanza percorsa di circa 126 km sono state censite 18 piante grandi, 76 medie, 33 piccole, 60 aree di piante ad alta densità e 30 aree a media densità. Inoltre, 34 tipi di danni diretti ed indiretti sono stati determinati e classificati.

I funghi fitopatogeni possono essere interessanti agenti di controllo biologico delle piante infestanti. Moltospesso questi agenti patogeni producono, nel corso dello sviluppo della malattia, dei metaboliti secondari con interessantiattività biologiche, in particolare fitotossica. Tali fitotossine potrebbero essere utilizzati sia direttamente come erbicidi naturali,o come "base" per nuovi erbicidi sintetici dotati di nuovi meccanismi di azione. Nell'ambito del Progetto COST SMARTERsono stati presi in considerazione alcuni patogeni di Ambrosia artemisiifolia ed alcune tossine prodotte da altri agentifitopatogeni, di cui si farà breve cenno in questa comunicazione.

Weed science, as an integral part of agricultural production needs to evolve by moving away from its mono-disciplinary perspective at targeting weeds, sometimes a single species, through the overreliance on few single herbicide mechanisms of action. Herbicides remain a simple and cost-effective way to control weeds but they are rapidly losing their effectiveness due to evolution of herbicide resistance. Additionally, weed science has been left wanting for a strong theoretical foundation rooted in evolutionary and ecological disciplines therefore, there is a great need for a new weed management paradigm in modern agriculture based on ecological principles and nonconventional weed management approaches. The "many little hammers" concept and the "use of technological advancement" are two major integrated weed management components that are gaining momentum. Automated, robotic weed control is being rapidly developed, particularly for vegetable crops and organic agriculture. Cover crops and weed seed destruction techniques are becoming popular with growers. In the future, RNAi technology, gene editing and 80 robotics will yield new tools for weed control. Agriculture is also moving into a new era of big data or "digital farming". It will be interesting to see what new, unforeseen weed control solutions will be derived from this new farming approach that will allow more intelligent application and integration of weed management technologies. In an attempt to facilitate the suitability of these technologies into integrated weed management systems this paper reviews the strengths and weaknesses of these modern technologies and tools and highlights future research 86 needs for each of these technologies.

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. is responsible for serious allergies induced on humans. Different approaches for its control were proposed during the COST Action FA1203 "Sustainable management of Ambrosia artemisiifolia in Europe" (SMARTER). Fungal secondary metabolites often show potential herbicidal activity. Three phytotoxins were purified from the fungal culture filtrates of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, isolated from infected leaves of A. artemisiifolia. They were identified by spectroscopic and chemical methods as colletochlorin A, orcinol and tyrosol (1, 2 and 3). The absolute configuration 6'R to colletochlorin A was assigned for the first time applying the advanced Mosher's method. When assayed by leaf-puncture on A. artemisiifolia only 1 caused the appearance of large necrosis. The same symptoms were also induced by 1 on ambrosia plantlets associated with plant wilting. On Lemna minor, colletochlorin A caused a clear fronds browning, with a total reduction in chlorophyll content.

Safer and more environmentally friendly methods, including the use of natural substances, would be favorably considered for weed management, particularly in those habitats where the use of chemicals is restricted or banned. Ascochyta caulina, a proposed mycoherbicide for biocontrol of the weed Chenopodiumalbum, produces in liquid culture three main metabolites proposed as possible natural herbicides. Recently a research project,namedECO-VIA, initiated a series of studies aimed at developing the technologies to obtain a natural herbicide based on these bioactive metabolites. Particular attention was given to: maximizing toxin production; lowering the production costs; scaling up the production in fermentation systems; setting up a large scale purification method and identifying fast and inexpensive chemical methods to quantify toxins yields. The fungus proved to grow well and to produce up to 230 mgof toxins l_1 culture when grown for 5-10 days in shaken conditions, provided the initial inoculum was at least 105-106 conidia ml_1 of culture. Toxin production was improved by the addition of yeast extract to the medium. Given suitable inoculum and growth conditions, a stirred fermenter could be suitable for mass production of toxin.

Seed germination is a key phase of the parasitic plant life cycle that is stimulated by the secondary metabolites, mainly strigolactones (SLs), secreted by the host roots. Interventions during this stage would be particularly suitable for parasitic weed management practices, as blocking these chemical signals would prevent seed germination and thus parasite attack. Four fungal strains with different ecological functions were considered for their possible ability to metabolise SLs: Fusarium oxysporum and F. solani, biocontrol agents of Phelipanche ramosa; Trichoderma harzianum, a potential biopesticide; Botrytis cinerea, a phytopathogenic fungus. Four different SLs [the natural strigol, 5-deoxystrigol (5DS) and 4-deoxyorobanchol (4DO), and the synthetic analogue GR24] were added to fungal cultures, followed by determination of the SL content by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.RESULTS: Differences were observed among microorganisms, treatments and SLs used. T. harzianum and F. oxysporum were the most capable of reducing the SL content; considering the whole set of fungi used, 5DS and 4DO proved to be the most degradable SLs.CONCLUSIONS: Beneficial microscopic fungi could differently be used for biocontrolling parasitic weeds, acting as a 'physiological'barrier, by preventing the germination of their seeds through the ability to biotransform the stimulatory signals.

A new phytotoxic geranylcyclohexenetriol, named phomentrioloxin, was isolated from the liquid culture of Phomopsis sp., a fungal pathogen proposed for the biological control of Carthamus lanatus, a widespread and troublesome thistle weed belonging to the Asteraceae family causing severe crop and pastures losses in Australia. The structure of phomentrioloxin was established by spectroscopic, X-ray, and chemicalmethods as (1S,2S,3S,4S)-3-methoxy-6-(7-methyl-3-methylene-oct-6-en-1-ynyl)-cyclohex-5-ene-1,2,4-triol. At a concentration of 6.85 mM, the toxin causes the appearance of necrotic spots when applied to leaves of both host and nonhost plants. It also causes growth and chlorophyll content reduction of fronds of Lemna minor and inhibition of tomato rootlet elongation. Finally, in preliminary bioassays, phomentrioloxin did not show any antibacterial, fungicidal, or zootoxic activities.

The main lipophilic phytotoxic metabolite was isolated from the culture filtrates of Pestalotiopsis guepinii, the fungus causing twig blight of hazelnut. The metabolite was spectroscopically identified as pestalopyrone, a pentaketide that it was originally identified as a minor toxin produced by Pestalotiopsis oenotherae. The toxic activity of pestalopyrone was compared with that of nectriapyrone, a structurally related monoterpenoid recently isolated from Phomopsis foeniculi, and that of the new dihydro-derivative of nectriapyrone. The high phytotoxic activity of nectriapyrone and its dihydro-derivative on three non host plants, showed that the double bond of the 1-methylpropenyl group at C-6 of the aromatic ring is inessential for its activity, while the much lower activity of pestalopyrone showed that the methyl group at C-3 of the same ring is an important structural feature. The high molecular weight hydrophilic phytotoxins produced by this fungus are reported for the first time.

Two phytotoxins were isolated from the liquid culture of Phoma chenopodiicola, a fungal pathogen proposed for the biological control of Chenopodium album, a common worldwide weed of arable crops. The two phytotoxins appeared to be a new tetrasubstituted furopyran and a new ent-pimaradiene. From the same culture a new tetrasubstituted isocoumarin was also isolated. These compounds were characterized by using spectroscopic (essentially 1D and 2D NMR and HR ESI MS) and chemical methods as 3-(3-methoxy-2,6-dimethyl-7aH-furo[2,3-b]pyran-4-yl)-but-2-en-1-ol (chenopodolan D, 1) (1S,2S,3S,4S,5S,9R,10S,12S,13S)-1,3,12-triacetoxy-2,hydroxy-6-oxo-ent-pimara-7(8),15-dien-18-oic acid 2,18-lactone (chenopodolin B, 3), and, 4,5,7-trihydroxy-3-methyl-isochroman-1-one (chenisocoumarin, 2) The absolute configuration of chenisocoumarin was assigned by applying an advanced Mosher's method through the derivatization of its secondary hydroxylated carbon C-4, while that of chenopodolan D by application of quantum mechanical calculations of chiroptical (ECD and ORD) properties. When assayed by leaf puncture against non-host weeds, chenopodolan D and chenopodolin B showed phytotoxicity while chenisocoumarin and the 9-O-acetyl derivative of chenopodolan D were inactive. These results confirm that the nature of the side chain at C-4 in chenopodolans, and in particular its hydroxylation, are important features for activity. The activity of chenopodolin B could also be explained by its possible hydrolysis to chenopodolin.

Le specie esotiche invasive (piante, animali, insetti, microrganismi, ecc.) sono specie che, trasportate in genere accidentalmente o volontariamente ad opera dell'uomo fuori dal loro areale di origine, sopravvivono, si riproducono e si diffondono nei nuovi ambienti con effetti negativi e gravi danni ecologici ed economici. Queste specie hanno un notevole impatto sulla perdita della biodiversità in quanto competono con le specie native e possono contribuirne all'estinzione. Tra le specie esotiche invasive più presenti e dannose l'ailanto, Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, (famiglia Simaroubaceae) l'albero del paradiso, è tra le più minacciose in Italia (Celesti-Grapow et al, 2010) e in Europa. L'Organizzazione Europea e Mediterranea per la Protezione delle Piante (EPPO) la include nella lista delle specie aliene invasive particolarmente temibili. Si tratta di una specie esotica altamente "invasiva" in quanto si diffonde spontaneamente in habitat naturali o semi-naturali, producendo cambiamenti significativi nella composizione ed equilibrio degli ecosistemi. La specie è molto rustica, non ha habitat preferenziali e può adattarsi a qualsiasi tipo di suolo e di regime idrico: cresce anche su suoli aridi e rocciosi, tollera carenze nutritive e siccità prolungata. La specie si riproduce sia per seme che per via vegetativa. I danni causati da A. altissima sono numerosi e ingenti (Casella, Vurro, 2012; Casella, Vurro, 2013) in diversi ambienti e a carico di differenti tipi di strutture. Nelle aree naturali l'ailanto danneggia gli equilibri ecologici, degrada degli habitat protetti generando inquinamento floristico e riduzione della biodiversità. Essendo poco esigente e a crescita molto rapida, la specie risulta molto competitiva con le specie autoctone. Le piante invadono le aree naturali formando popolamenti monospecifici ad alta densità che ombreggiano le specie autoctone e ne riducono o impediscono la crescita, sostituendo e modificando in modo significativo la vegetazione autoctona.Il Progetto LIFE Alta Murgia "Controllo ed eradicazione della specie vegetale esotica invasiva Ailanthus altissima nel Parco Nazionale dell'Alta Murgia" ha come obiettivo principale la eradicazione di A. altissima dal territorio del Parco Nazionale dell'Alta Murgia. Il progetto ha carattere innovativo e dimostrativo, prefiggendosi di impiegare su ampia scala tecniche di controllo della specie nuove, mai applicate né nell'area di interesse del Parco né altrove, e impegnandosi a divulgarle e a diffonderne l'uso a tutti i diretti interessati.Il Parco è interamente compreso nel Sito Natura 2000 - SIC/ZPS IT9120007 "Murgia Alta". Istituito con d.P.R. 10 marzo 2004, il Parco è tra i più estesi a livello nazionale ed europeo con i suoi 68.077 ettari. Il territorio è caratterizzato da una successione di praterie aride mediterranee, creste rocciose, colline, inghiottitoi, cavità carsiche, lame, estesi pascoli naturali e coltivi, boschi di quercia e di conifere, dove l'az

The spread of invasive alien species threatens the conservation of natural ecosystems, being the second leading cause of biodiversity loss. Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle (tree of heaven) is one of the most damaging invasive alien plant species, and the most important one within the Alta Murgia National Park, the second largest park in Europe, containing a great wealth of biodiversity. The species is highly present throughout the park, both in anthropic places such as antique manors and sheepfolds, where farmers intentionally planted A. altissima trees for shade, and in natural habitats such as grasslands and rocky soils, fi elds, woods edges, dry stone walls and roadsides, where they spontaneously grew. The "LIFE Alta Murgia" project, started in 2013, was funded within the European LIFE+ Framework. Its main objective is to eradicate A. altissima from the Alta Murgia National Park. Many large areas have been restored by using an eco-friendly and sustainable strategy for tree of heaven control based on stem application techniques able to minimize herbicide use and reduce risks for health and environment. For broad high plant density patches, best results were obtained with one winter treatment with glyphosate followed by one summer completion treatment. Stem applications provided good control with low rates of herbicide and off ered many advantages: no drift, no off -target eff ects, selectivity, minimal need for equipment, the possibility of treatments in urban and natural areas. An offi cial protocol for tree of heaven management will be proposed.

Natural compounds and living organisms still have a limited use in crop protection, and only a few of them have reached the market, despite their attractiveness and the efforts made in research. Very often those products have negative characteristics compared to the synthetic compounds, e.g. higher costs of production, lower effectiveness, lack of persistence, and inability to reach and penetrate the target plant. Conversely, nanotechnologies are having an enormous impact in all human activities, including agriculture, even if some nanomaterials are not environmentally friendly to produce, or could have adverse effects in the agriculture and the environment. Thus, some nanomaterials could facilitate the development of formulated natural pesticides, making them more effective and more environmentally friendly. Nanoformulations can improve efficacy, reduce effective doses, and increase shelf-life and persistence. Such controlled release products can improve delivery to the target pest. This review considers some available nanomaterials and nanotechnologies to be used in agriculture, discussing their properties and feasibility in the perspective of their use in sustainable crop protection, in particular to improve the effectiveness of natural bio-based agrochemicals.

Strigolactones are a class of natural and synthetic compounds that in the past decade have been exciting the scientific community not only for their intriguing biological properties but also for their potential applications in agriculture. These applications range from their use as hormones to modify and/or manage plant architecture, to their use as stimulants to induce seed germination of parasitic weeds and thus control their infestation by a reduced seed bank, to their use as 'biostimulants' of plant root colonisation by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, improving plant nutritional capabilities, to other still unknown effects on microbial soil communities. More recently, these compounds have also been attracting the interest of agrochemical companies. In spite of their biological attractiveness, practical applications are still greatly hampered by the low product yields obtainable by plant root exudates, by the costs of their synthesis, by the lack of knowledge of their off-target effects and by the not yet specified or properly identified legislation that could regulate the use of these compounds, depending on the agricultural purposes. The aim of this article is to discuss, in the light of current knowledge, the different scenarios that might play out in the near future with regard to the practical application of strigolactones.

Strigolactones are a class of bioactive natural metabolites produced by plant roots and released into the rhizosphere. They were discovered as signals indispensable for the induction of germination of seeds of root parasitic weeds, but since then, interestingly, many other biological, physiological and ecological roles have been described. This has suddenly provoked huge scientific interest in these compounds within different research fields. In this short perspective the attention is focused mainly on the ongoing and future research aimed at deciphering the biological roles of strigolactones that could positively affect, more or less directly, the management of parasitic weeds.

A new 3-substituted-5-diazenylcyclopentendione named kongiidiazadione was isolated from culture filtrates of Diaporthe kongii, associated with stem cankers on sunflower in Australia. Kongiidiazadione was characterized by spectroscopic (essentially nuclear magnetic resonance [NMR] and high-resolution, electrospray ionization, mass spectrometry [HRESIMS]) methods as (-)-5-diazenyl-3-hydroxymethyl-cyclopent-3-en-1,2-dione. The stereochemistry of the diazenyl group was determined by IR spectroscopy, while the (R) absolute configuration at C(5) was assigned by computational analysis of its electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectrum. When assayed on leaf disks of different plant species at 5 mM, the kongiidiazadione had a differential impact, causing clear necrosis, in particular to Helianthus annuus. Moreover, kongiidiazadione proved to have a weak antibacterial activity against gram-positive Bacillus amyloliquefaciens.

Although fungi produce highly structurally diverse metabolites, many of which have served as excellent sources of pharmaceuticals, no fungi-derived agent has been approved as a cancer drug so far. This is despite a tremendous amount of research being aimed at the identification of fungal metabolites with promising anticancer activities. This review discusses the results of clinical testing of fungal metabolites and their synthetic derivatives, with the goal to evaluate how far we are from an approved cancer drug of fungal origin. Also, because in vivo studies in animal models are predictive of the efficacy and toxicity of a given compound in a clinical situation, literature describing animal cancer testing of compounds of fungal origin is reviewed as well. Agents showing the potential to advance to clinical trials are also identified. Finally, the technological challenges involved in the exploitation of fungal biodiversity and procurement of sufficient quantities of clinical candidates are discussed, and potential solutions that could be pursued by researchers are highlighted.

The idea of using living organisms for weed control goes back over a century, and very encouraging results were obtained from the 1960s to the 1970s. It is foreseeable and desirable that in the near future, further reasons will support the development and financial sustainment of this research field. The authors describe past and present successes, and discuss possible approaches for improving future achievements.