A characterization of medium enthalpy geothermal resources has been carried out in the Southern Apennines "Guardia Lombardi" site (Campania Region, Italy) within the framework of the Vigor Project. Due to the intense hydrocarbon exploration carried out in Italy since the '50, a wide public dataset of well data and seismic reflection profiles is available for the study site. Moreover, a scientific cooperation with the ENI Italian Oil Company has been established in order to access to more detailed dataset also including wells information and core samples. A three-dimensional geological model of the reservoir-caprock system has been developed through an integrated interpretation of the available geological, geophysical, hydrogeological and geochemical information in the study area. The geothermal reservoir of "Guardia Lombardi" site is constituted by the Cretaceous-Eocene fractured shallow water carbonates belonging to the Apulian platform. Such units have been structured in a buried antiformal stack during the Apennine orogenesis. The reservoir fluids are mainly composed of CO2, which rests above of brackish water in the central part of the deep carbonatic aquifer culmination (i.e., Monte Forcuso 1 well). Conversely along the flanks of the buried anticline (e.g., Bonito 1 Dir, Ciccone 1 wells) the reservoir fluids consist of saline water, not showing any free gas phase. The temperature of this fluids recorded into the reservoir are 120-125°C at the depth of about 3000 m below the ground level (e.g. Bonito 1 well). Given the quite good permeability of the fractured carbonate rocks, numerical simulation performed in this work estimated that a water production of about 13.5-20 kg/s might be achieved according to the chosen technical solution (a single production well vs production- reinjection doublet). Results confirm that the "Guardia Lombardi" site represents an interesting area for the exploitation of this medium enthalpy geothermal resource.

The increasing groundwater exploitation and contamination risks due to the progressive population growth in coastal areas are emphasized in the case of carbonate coastal aquifers (CCAs), the peculiarities of which, especially in the Mediterranean basin, constitute a scientific matter of worldwide relevance.The CCAs of the Adriatic and Ionian coasts not only ensure the socio-economic development of the populations but feeds with their spring waters valuable wetland and coastal environments with relevant and highly positive effects on ecosystems. The groundwater resources of CCAs are highly vulnerable, especially if affected by karstic phenomena, to the quality and quantity degradation phenomena, not only for the increasing water demand and the decreasing recharge due to climate changes but also in relation to the sea level changes and the pollutant loads due to the contamination occurred in the whole hydrogeological basins.The aim of this study is to offer a systematic and synoptic view, useful for knowledge, management and forecast purposes, contributing to assure enduring availability of high quality groundwater, conciliating water demand satisfaction with the ecological needs of coastal Adriatic and Ionian environments in which the role of groundwater is very important. A geodatabase, collecting information for all carbonate aquifers present along the Adriatic and Ionian coast, have been created. At the core, there is a Geographic Information System, in which are placed the spatial information regarding the geology of aquifers, hydrogeological and geochemical features, together with specific information concerning groundwater use of CCAs. The added value of this database is the availability of a wide bibliography related to CCAs, together with a schematised summary of key information realised considering available information in the whole geodatabase.Starting from this idea, the cooperation between hydrogeologists experts of different areas, have enabled to focus on some specific areas of peculiar hydrogeological interest, as for the CCAs of Apulia (SE Italy), South-western Slovenia, Western and South Croatia, Montenegrian coast (Boka bay) and Western Greece.

The Maltese Islands are located in the central Mediterranean area, on the Malta-Sicily Platform. The archipelago consists of three main islands, Malta, Gozo and Comino, and several small uninhabited islets. Malta, the largest of the three islands, has an extent of 246 km2. The islands present a typical central Mediterranean semi-arid climate with hot dry summers and mild wet winters. The mean-annual rainfall stands at around 550 mm but with high inter- and intra-annual variability. The size of the islands precludes the formation of significant bodies of surface water and therefore the main natural water resources of the islands are the groundwateraquifer systems, in particular the sea-level aquifer systems present in the two larger islands. These aquifer systems are sustained in a carbonate formation (the Lower Coralline Limestone) and take the typical shape of a Ghyben-Herzberg freshwater lens. The high population density of the islands is also reflected in a high level of urban development, where around 25% of the total land area of the islands has been built up. This has altered the physical characteristics of the landscape by significantly increasing the quantity of impermeable surfaces, thereby reducing infiltration processes to groundwater, and increasing the generation of rainwater runoff following rain events. The islands thus present a mixed land-use scenario where domestic, agricultural and commercial activities are operating side by side and depending on the same type of water resources. Of particular reference is the islands' highly developed tourism and recreational sector which places added strain on the water supplies during the dry summer months. Groundwater use for municipal supply is supplemented by the use of sea-water desalination by reverse osmosis. The agricultural sector is mainly dependent on groundwater resources, although water re-use is currently being introduced on a wide scale to supplement (and replace) groundwater use. The use of alternative water resources has thus, in recent years, reduced the pressures on groundwater resources. The aim of this paper is to describe the collaboration between CNR and EWA aimed at the undertaking of a hydrogeological study to support the eventual development of management tools for optimizing the use of Malta's groundwater resources, with specific focus on the main sea-level aquifer system in the island of Malta. As part of this collaboration a review of the hydrogeological environment of the aquifer systems has been undertaken and important data gaps have been identified and are being addressed. The eventual groundwater body. management tool to be developed under this collaborative initiative will enable the formulation and testing of updated groundwater exploitation strategies which ensure the protection of the groundwater bodies from regional and localized sea-water intrusion, whilst taking full consideration of the potential effects of climate change, including the variability o

The general purpose of this paper is to prove the capability of numerical models in management of groundwater resources and in particular for achieve forecast scenarios to evaluate the impacts of climate change on them. A large-scale approach was chosen. The active domain of the study area (active cells) cover approximately 2,300 km2 with 45,925 cells. Vertically, the area was divided into 12 layers to allow a good lithological and hydrogeological discretization. Thickness and geometry of layers was defined on the 3D knowledge of hydrogeological complexes. Climatic, hydrological, geological, hydrological and agricultural acquisitions were processing and became the input for a variable-density flow and transport numerical modelling. MODFLOW and SEAWAT was used. Qualitative and quantitative groundwater trends from 1930 to 2060 was so defined. To achieve predictive scenarios for the management of coastal groundwater resources could be necessary take into account climate changes, with regard particularly to temperature, precipitation, sea level and seawater salinity. The purpose was assessing the effects of climate change on groundwater availability and quality. Results show an important piezometric decrease and an increment of seawater intrusion and in consequence a deterioration of groundwater resource. For these requires different scenarios of pumping were considered to study and manage the reaction of the aquifer with reference to seawater intrusion effects. In others words, the same pumping was redistributed in the different areas consider a quality criterion, simple to use especially in those areas where policy of groundwater resource scientifically based is absent.

The main scope was to provide technological and methodological innovation to the Consorzio di Bonifica Montana del Gargano (CBMG), the land reclamation authority of the Gargano Promontory, to support their responsibilities that ranges from mitigation of hydrogeological risk to water supply, mainly for agricultural purposes. It was pursued by a group of private enterprises, with the CNR-IRPI's Hydrology laboratory support, through the GarganoLab project "Integrated information system for land management, environmental monitoring and emergency alert", funded by the Apulia Region as part of "Living Labs" measures.

Carbonate aquifers, located in foreland tectonic settings, could represent important thermal water resources outside the volcanic areas, supplying spas or geothermal installations. Thermal springs constitute the discharge areas of deep marine and continental groundwaters flowing within these carbonate aquifers whose hydraulic conductivity and the relevant geothermal fluid migration are strictly controlled by both the discontinuity network and the karst processes involving the foreland environment. An example of these springs occurs along the south-easternmost portion of the Apulia region (Southern Italy) where some sulphurous and warm waters (22-33 °C) flow out in partially submerged caves located along the coast, thus supplying the spas of Santa Cesarea Terme.These springs are known from ancient times (Aristotele in III century BC) and the physical-chemical features of their thermal waters resulted to be partly influenced by the sea level variations. Some hypotheses about the origin of these warm waters were proposed up to now by previous researches but some uncertainties still exist. For this reason, the area has been selected in order to define the conceptual model of the geothermal resources related to the thermal springs and, as a consequence, the origin of the thermal springs. It is one of the pilot site of the Vigor Project (Evaluation of the geothermal potential of Regions of Convergence), promoted by the Italian Ministry of Economic Development and National Research Council.Santa Cesarea Terme zone is located within the Apulia carbonate platform, the foreland of the southern Apennines, which consists of Jurassic-Cretaceous limestones, thick more than 5 km in the study area and affected by intense karst processes, resting above the Late Triassic evaporite (Burano Fm) and, unconformably, overlaid by Cenozoic calcareous successions. Belonging to a coastal area, the studied groundwater, whose top is located almost to the sea level, is involved in saltwater intrusion and therefore the salt-fresh water interface occurs at some meters below the sea level moving inland. Geological and hydrogeological surveys, including geo-electrical prospecting, and chemical and isotopic analyses of both groundwater and seawater have been carried out. Stable isotopes (?18O, ?D) were used to define the origin of the thermal waters and the recharge mechanism of the geothermal systems while the unstable isotope (3H) was determined for estimating the age of the thermal waters and to define the conceptual model of this low temperature geothermal resource. All the data have been analysed to improve the knowledge of the groundwater flow system, thus assessing the possibility of using low-temperature geothermal fluids to fulfil the thermal needs of the town of Santa Cesarea Terme.In this narrow area, the source of geogenic salinization of spring groundwater was referred to ascending very deep groundwater, more saline than current sea water.The geochemical com

The availability of good quality water is worldwide a basic condition to pursue the socioeconomic development. The agriculture water demand can be damaged by contamination of groundwater resources. This paper proposes a tool to preserve the groundwater quality by using groundwater vulnerability assessment methods and a decision support system (DSS). Vulnerability map could be used for planning, policy, management, and contamination assessment. The mapping of intrinsic groundwater vulnerability was based on reliable methods, i.e., the DRASTIC and the SINTACS methods. A vulnerability map could be used for planning, policy, management, and contamination assessment. A DSS was developed in order to assess the groundwater vulnerability and pollution risk due to agricultural activities and land use changes. The proposed DSS software package was designed using the Matlab language. The software is a friendly application for everyone ranging from the novice user, e.g., a student, to an operations research scientist. It quickly and efficiently performs the task that is scheduled to carry out, and it can incorporate new maps in order to cover new areas. The tool was tested using two study areas located in the Mediterranean area. The test sites are dominated by different prevalent hydrogeological features, i.e., the typical porous features of alluvial deposits in the Greek study area and the typical fissured and karstic features of limestones and dolostones in the Italian study area.

The Apulian peninsular coastline (940 km) includes many urbanized areas and coastal wetlands, the latter in same cases interested by huge touristic transformations. The region is dominated by large and deep karstic and coastal aquifers and by some minor porous coastal aquifers the coastal outflow of which create tens of coastal wetlands. They should be considered dependent by groundwater outflow and by dynamic equilibria with sea, in terms of seawater intrusion and ingression. For a long time, these areas were considered unproductive, sources of malaria, and were depopulated. During the second half of the last century, relevant reclamation works were realized, the coastal areas have assumed a role of primary importance for the social and economic development. This has led to a growing anthropic pressure along the coast that has led to a progressive deterioration of the coastal wetland environments. High vulnerability to pollution, overexploitation trend, increasing seawater intrusion effects and global groundwater quality decrease threaten the hydrological and ecological equilibria of these water systems. The collective awareness of the important role played by the transition environments, gave rise to a conceptual innovation on the protection and enhancement of wetlands.The research is finalized to define an inventory of the regional coastal wetlands, focusing on that the role of groundwater outflow is relevant if not prevailing. For each of these wetlands were defined a number of information and characteristics based on bibliographical knowledge and field surveys. The geological and hydrological conditions were recognized. On this basis, the hydrological and hydrogeological conceptualization was ended, permitting to define a steady state hydrological balance of wetlands. The role of seawater intrusion and ingression and the role of these in terms of salinity is analyzed. The scope is to offer a global overview of these wetlands to promote a systematic approach to their safeguard.

In the province of Bari the hydrographic network consists of ephemeral streams called lame. In these watercourses the absence of runoff for long periods contributed to unfounded beliefs concerning the hydraulic safety of the landscape and therefore uncontrolled changes in streambeds and floodplains. In these streams high water discharges can occur during heavy rainfalls, as demonstrated by the floods that hit the city of Bari in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The flooding event of October 22-23, 2005 can be considered catastrophic as it resulted in six deaths, numerous injuries and substantial damage sustained by road and railway infrastructures at the intersection with the hydrographic network. This study aims to analyse the severity of the event in terms of the response of the landscape with reference to the case of the lama Scappagrano basin, where a Eurostar train derailed due to the collapse of the railway embankment. Coupled hydrological and two-dimensional hydraulic modelling was performed to reconstruct the flood hydrograph and water depths on the upstream side of the embankment. The results were used to set the boundary conditions to analyse the internal stability of the embankment using a finite element method.

Approximately 70% of the population of the earth lives in coastal areas and the majority of these people depend on coastal aquifers for freshwater. For this reason the coastal aquifers are vulnerable to pollution and are now recognized as a crucial arena for future progress towards sustainability in world. This paper deals with the assessment of groundwater vulnerability of Kiti aquifer, South Cyprus. The Kiti aquifer, covering an area of about of 30 Km2, is situated in the southern part of Cyprus with a mean elevation of 20 m above sea level. The area is characterized by semi-arid climatic conditions. The groundwater resources are related to the Pleistocene coastal plain and the recent Tremithos river valley deposits. The concept of the groundwater vulnerability is based on the assumption that the physical environment may provide some degree of protection to groundwater against human activities. The DRASTIC method is applied to evaluate aquifer vulnerability. The method was developed by the United State Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as a technique for assessing groundwater pollution potential, and is based on seven (7) parameters: Depth (D), Recharge (R), Aquifer media (A), Soil media (S), Topography (T), Impact of the vadose zone media (I), hydraulic Conductivity of the aquifer (C). Determination of the DRASTIC index (DI) involves multiplying each parameter weight by its site rating and summing the total. Based on DI values a groundwater vulnerability map was illustrated, using a Geographical Information System (GIS). The highest vulnerability values in the Kiti area, covering a large part, are associated with shallow aquifers without great depth of the vadose zone. The results provide important information and the vulnerability map could be used from local authorities and decision makers who are responsible for groundwater resources management and protection zoning.

Bacino idrologico del Mar Piccolo di Taranto: esperienze di studio tra Murgia e Salento

Il complesso assetto geomorfologico della Calabria e le sue peculiarità climatiche, tra cui una piovosità maggiore della media nazionale, fanno si che questa sia una delle regioni maggiormente esposte a fenomenologie di dissesto idrogeologico. Quale effetto indiretto della rude morfologia regionale e dello sviluppo territoriale oblungo, il reticolo stradale principale ha un basso grado di interconnessione, circostanza questa che ne amplifica l'intrinseca vulnerabilità. In tale contesto, l'incidenza delle vie di comunicazione veloci e ad elevata capacità è trascurabile, mentre le tipologie costruttive risultano essere, come discusso da questo contributo, non adeguate alla diffusa vulnerabilità idrogeologica del territorio. Piogge intense e/o prolungate determinano la frequente insorgenza di crisi territoriali, comunemente definite eventi alluvionali, che determinano sia frane diffuse che catastrofiche piene, e causano perdite di vite umane nonchè gravi e duraturi danni alle infrastrutture di trasporto. In tali circostanze, i dissesti che si determinano lungo la rete viaria rappresentano una fonte di danno sia diretto che indiretto per la comunità e nei casi più gravi costituiscono un impedimento alle attività di protezione civile. L'analisi sistematica delle tipologie di dissesti che hanno interessato la rete viaria in un arco temporale sufficientemente esteso (80 anni), selezionato per la sua significatività, costituisce uno strumento per la valutazione delle relazioni causa effetto fra il verificarsi di piene ed eventi alluvionali da una parte e l'insorgenza dei dissesti della rete viaria dall'altra. La ricerca si propone di individuare indicazioni utili alla programmazione della manutenzione ordinaria e nonché alla gerarchizzazione delle priorità degli interventi volti a minimizzare i danni causati dalle piene alle infrastrutture lineari di trasporto.

The study discusses the large karstic coastal aquifer of Vlora Bay. This case is peculiar, as the submarine groundwater discharge has a relevant rate of terrestrial inflow in an almost closed bay that is located in an environmentally valuable area.The study is based on four methodological activities: geological and hydrogeological conceptualisation, climatic study and hydrological balance, numerical modelling, and monitoring.A geodatabase was created considering hundreds of data points (wells, springs, rivers, lagoons, and seas) and monthly time series of rainfall, temperature, and river discharge.Monitoring activity was realised over a hydrological year, installing a rainfall network tool and using a network of tens of sampling points, including springs, wells, lagoons and sea. Chemical-physical and stable isotope determinations were realised.Two main groups of aerial springs are fed by the aquifer, one of which is of a coastal type. The total spring discharge is roughly 4 m3/s. The GSD was assessed as being equal to 1.4 m3/s on the basis of the current rate of anthropic discharge and climatic conditions. The study showed the peculiarities of this carbonate coastal aquifer and the importance of its groundwater, which is the chief water source for the third-largest Albanian town. The groundwater quality was generally high, mainly due to the negligible presence of contamination sources on the relief in which the aquifer outcrops. The rate of seawater intrusion effects was also low, thanks to favourable aquifer 3-D geometry and high recharge levels. The increasing anthropic activities constitute a relevant risk in the absence of the introduction of rigorous land and water management criteria.

Recent international researches have underlined the evidences of climate changes throughout the world. Among the consequences of climate change, there is the increase in the frequency and magnitude of natural disasters, such as droughts, windstorms, heat waves, landslides, floods and secondary floods (i.e. rapid accumulation or pounding of surface water with very low flow velocity). The Damaging Hydrogeological Events (DHEs) can be defined as the occurrence of one or more simultaneous aforementioned phenomena causing damages.They represent a serious problem, especially in DHE-prone areas with growing urbanisation. In these areas the increasing frequency of extreme hydrological events could be related to climate variations and/or urban development. The historical analysis of DHEs can support decision making and land-use planning, ultimately reducing natural risks.The paper proposes a methodology, based on both historical and time series approaches, used for describing the influence of climatic variability on the number of phenomena observed.The historical approach is finalised to collect phenomenon historical data. The historical flood and landslide data are important for the comprehension of the evolution of a study area and for the estimation of risk scenarios as a basis for civil protection purposes. Phenomenon historical data is useful for expanding the historical period of investigation in order to assess the occurrence trend of DHEs.The time series approach includes the collection and the statistical analysis of climatic and rainfall data (monthly rainfall, wet days, rainfall intensity, and temperature data together with the annual maximum of short-duration rainfall data, from 1 hour to 5 days), which are also used as a proxy for floods and landslides. The climatic and rainfall data are useful to characterise the climate variations and trends and to roughly assess the effects of these trends on river discharge and on the triggering of landslides. The time series approach is completed by tools to analyse simultaneously all data types.The methodology was tested considering a selected Italian region (Apulia, southern Italy).The data were collected in two databases: a damaging hydrogeological event database (1186 landslides and floods since 1918) and a climate database (from 1877; short-duration rainfall from 1921).A statistically significant decreasing trend of rainfall intensity and an increasing trend of temperature, landslides, and DHEs were observed. A generalised decreasing trend of short-duration rainfall was observed. If there is not an evident relationship between climate variability and the variability of DHE occurrences, the role of anthropogenic modifications (increasing use or misuse of flood- and landslide-prone areas) could be hypothesized to justify the increasing occurrences of floods and landslides..This study identifies the advantages of a simplifying approach to reduce the intrinsic complexities of the spatial

Second half of the 20th century was characterized by an increase of groundwater discharge. Numerous aquifers are overexploited in the world and in particular in the Mediterranean area. Problems tie to overexploitation, as piezometric decline and increase of seawater intrusion, are amplified in karst coastal aquifers where the whole effect could be a groundwater quality and quantity degradation. Focusing on Mediterranean countries, most part of coastal aquifers of Spain, France, Portugal, Slovenia, Croatia, Greece, Albania, Turkey, and Italy are karstic and affected, to different degrees, by seawater intrusion due high pumping extraction rates and low recharge. (COST, 2005; Polemio et al., 2010). Climate change may particularly aggravate these requirements, especially in the Mediterranean areas, due to the combined effects of semiarid condition climate, or reduced recharge and consequent increase of discharge (Cotecchia et al., 2003; Polemio 2005; Polemio et al., 2009). The general purpose of this paper is to prove the capability of large-scale numerical models in management of groundwater, in particular for achieve forecast scenarios to evaluate the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources of karst coastal aquifer of Salento (Southern Italy). The computer codes selected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW and SEAWAT. Three forecast transient scenarios, referred to 2001-2020, 2021-2040 and 2041-2060, were implemented, on the basis of calibrated and validated model, with the aim to predicting the evolution of piezometric level and seawater intrusion. The scenarios were discussed considering the effects of climate change, sea level rise and change of sea salinity.

Recent international researches have underlined the evidences of climate changes throughout the world such as the rise of temperature and the variation of distribution and intensity of rainfall.The aim of this paper is to verify if there are relations between climate changes and the occurrence of hydrogeological damaging events, especially landslides, in Apulia. The Apulia region is partially a peninsula located in southern Italy and has an area of 20.000 km2.Most of the region is flat, the few areas with relief are concentrated in the Subappennino dauno and Gargano (maximum altitude 1,152 m asl). In the region it can be distinguished three different geological domains: foreland, foredeep and the Apennine mountain chain. The foreland is made of cretaceous limestones and it is represented by Salento, Murge and Gargano; the foredeep (Fossa Bradanica) is made of carbonate sediments settled during Plio-pleistocene, while Apennine thrust-belt is made of a series of terrigenous and marine deposits which settled in different basins that were stacked during the orogenic phase. At present these sediments are chaotic and present poor geotechnical characteristics.Both climate and landslide data have been obtained from available databases that have been expanded by authors. Climate data covers a period from 1877 to 2008; time series from 60 rain gauges of which 47 are thermometric were selected. The climate database collects data about monthly temperature, rainfall and wet days, where a wet day is defined as a day in which precipitation is equal or more than 1 mm. A complex statistical treatment was done to correct the anomaly in the data before 1920, which consider as a wet day every day with any amount of precipitation. Climate indices related to temperature, rainfall, wet days and rainfall intensity (as the ratio rainfall/wet days) have been calculated for each month and for the hydrological year (from September to August of the year after), to obtain only a set of data for the whole region.Landslide data came from historical archives and newspapers and it covers a period from 1918 to 2006. In Apulia 237 landslide events were observed; landslide data were organised on the basis of municipal monthly time series. Monthly and annual indices concerning climate and landslide occurrence were defined and calculated.During the mean hydrological year the maximum number of landslides occur in January; between December and February there is the 61% of total. January 2003 was the month with the highest number of landslide events (61 events in the Subappennino dauno). The trend analysis shows an increasing trend for landslides, despite the decreasing trend of rainfall and rainfall intensity and an increasing trend of temperature and wet days, climate favourable conditions to the reduction of landslide occurrence. These effects were justified highlighting the inappropriate land use in landslide prone areas.The regional landslide distribution is not ho

The Mar Piccolo basin is an internal sea basin located along the Ionian coast (Southern Italy), and it is surrounded primarily by fractured carbonate karstic environment. Because of the karstic features, the main continental water inflow is from groundwater discharge. The Mar Piccolo basin represents a peculiar and sensitive environment and a social emergency because of sea water and sediments pollution. This pollution appears to be caused by the overlapping effects of dangerous anthropogenic activities, including heavy industries and commercial and navy dockyards. The paper aims to define the contribution of subaerial and submarine coastal springs to the hydrological dynamic equilibrium of this internal sea basin. A general approach was defined, including a hydrogeological basin border assessment to detect inflowing springs, detailed geological and hydrogeological conceptualisation, in situ submarine and subaerial spring measurements, and flow numerical modelling. Multiple sources of data were obtained to define a relevant geodatabase, and it contained information on approximately 2,000 wells, located in the study area (1,600 km2). The conceptualisation of the hydrogeological basin, which is 978 km2 wide, was supported by a 3D geological model that interpolated 716 stratigraphic logs. The variability in hydraulic conductivity was determined using hundreds of pumping tests. Five surveys were performed to acquire hydro-geochemical data and spring flow-yield measurements; the isotope groundwater age was assessed and used for model validation. The mean annual volume exchanged by the hydrogeological basin was assessed equal to 106.93 106 m3. The numerical modelling permitted an assessment of the mean monthly yield of each spring outflow (surveyed or not), travel time, and main path flow.

Carbonate aquifers in foreland tectonic settings can host important thermal springs although located inareas commonly not characterized by regional high heat flow values. In these cases, when thermal springsare located close or along the coastlines the subaerial and/or submarine thermal springs constitute theoutflow of marine groundwater, flowing through localized fractures and karsitic rock-volumes. This isthe case of springs occurring along the south-easternmost portion of the Apulia region (Southern Italy)where few sulphurous and warm waters (22-33oC) outflow in partially submerged caves located alongthe shoreline, thus supplying the historical spas of Santa Cesarea Terme. Here, with the aim to define theorigin of the thermal fluids and their deep path, we carried out the geo-structural survey of the area anddetailed hydrogeological and geochemical analyses of the thermal spring fluids. In particular, the isotopes18O, D,13C in DIC,34Ssulphate,34Ssulphide,3He/4He ratio and13C in CO2were used to define the origin ofthe thermal water and the recharge mechanism of the geothermal system while the isotopes3H and14Cwere determined for estimating the age of the thermal waters, resulting in older than roughly twentythousands years BP. The results indicate that the thermal springs are fed by marine water, having reachedSanta Cesarea Terme through a localized fracture network. This affects the evaporitic and carbonatic rocksthat characterize the substratum of the Adriatic Sea in the offshore.

The Mar Piccolo (literally "small sea"), a sea internal basin which is part of the Taranto Gulf, located along theIonian coast in Southern Italy (Apulia region), represents a peculiar and sensitive environmental area and a social emergency due to the pollution of sea water and sediments due to the effect of the neat industrial area of Taranto. Thepaper describes the methodological approach to define the conceptualisation of the hydrogeological basin of main subaerial and submarine coastal springs of the Mar Piccolo. The geochemical discussion concerning spring groundwater was finalised to define the effect of seawater intrusion. These waters are characterised by high values of electrical conductivity and high concentrations of alkaline ions (Na+ and K+) and chloride ion and show typical chemical characteristics of fresh groundwater contaminated by seawater intrusion. The groundwater composition of the subaerial springs of Mar Piccolo is controlled by the combined effects of calcite dissolution and ion exchange. A basicmodel of the coastal aquifer was realised with the purpose to assess the mean annual and monthly value of spring outflows in Mar Piccolo. The computer codes selected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW and SEAWAT. The active domain of the model was about 978 km2 with a total number of 391200 cells. The researchpursues the knowledge of the hydrological balance of the internal sea, the geochemistry of groundwater, and the groundwater discharge effect on the ecological equilibrium of the coastal environment in the framework of a wide Italian research program called RITMARE.

The data presented in this article are related to the research article described by (Cossu et al., 2018).The data set for this article contains chemical analyses of groundwater and leachate, isotope analysis of groundwater and leachate around a group of landfills located in the municipality of Conversano, close to Bari, the main town of the Apulia Region (Southern Italy). Groundwater samples were collected from eighteen wells.The hydrogeological and chemical study was used to define geochemical features, groundwater and leachate characteristics and to study their potential macroscopic mixing.The land use analysis highlighted quantity and type of used fertilizers permitting to compare these with groundwater in terms of isotopic signature.

Past Damaging Hydrogeological Events (DHEs), which can be defined as periods characterised by heavy rainfall inducing such damaging phenomena as landslides and floods, are analysed in this article. The work is focused on the relationships between these phenomena and the characteristics of triggered rainfall, to supply useful suggestions for early detection and damage mitigation. The analysis of past DHEs allows for the characterisation of the main types of DHEs, which affected a selected area in the past and could affect it again in the future.The proposed characterisation is based on triggering scenarios (meteorological conditions preceding the occurrence of DHEs), DHE's effects (damage caused by landslides and floods) and triggering factors (rainfall of different durations). Based on these features, the typical DHEs affecting a study area can be outlined and ranked according to their severity, thus specific emergency management can be planned to successfully manage them.To obtain results that have a reliable statistical meaning, a large amount of data of three different types (meteorological, rainfall and damage data) must be treated, and some indices, allowing the comparative analysis of these kinds of data, have to be introduced.In this work we describe the methodological approach, which can be applied in different climatic and anthropogenic contexts;finally, some applications of the proposed method to the region of Calabria (South Italy) are presented

The coastal carbonate Apulian aquifers, located in southern Italy, feed several coastal fresh springs and constitute the main local source of high quality water. The Santa Cesarea Terme cave system is almost unique case of hypogenic coastal spring caves, located along the Adriatic Sea coastline and hosting spring coastal outflow of mixed groundwater (from 22°C to 33°C) mainly of thermal groundwater due to infiltration offshore, in the sea bottom, and pure fresh groundwater due rainfall infiltration. Thermal springs and the outflow system are strictly controlled by both the discontinuity network and the karst processes involving the foreland environment. Detailed geoelectrical prospecting were carried out to bound the upflow continental area of this system, considering the geoelectrical effects of deep water mixing with different salinity and temperature close the Adriatic coast.

The progressive population growth in coastal areas and the increasing groundwater discharge, together withpeculiarities of karst coastal aquifers constitute a huge worldwide problem, particularly relevant for coastal aquifers ofthe Mediterranean basin (Tulipano et al., 2005).Karst aquifers in coastal regions are well known to be highly vulnerable to the overexploitation of groundwaterresources, both from water increasing demand than from decreasing aquifer recharge due to climate changes. The coastalcarbonate aquifers of the Mediterranean Sea, in particular the Adriatic and Ionian coast that extend between westernGreece and Italy up to the eastern coast of Sicily not only ensure the socio-economic development of the populations butfeeds with spring waters valuable wetland environments with negative effects on ecosystems (Barrocu, 2003; Bonacci,2014; Eftimi & Zojer, 2015; Polemio, 2016).The aim of this study is to develop management and forecast tools to identify the best way to assure enduringavailability of high quality groundwater, and conciliate irrigation and drinking water demands. A geodatabase, collectinginformation for all carbonate aquifers present along the Adriatic and Ionian coast, will be first created. At the core thereis a Geographic Information System, in which are placed the spatial information regarding the geology of aquifers,hydrogeological and geochemical features, together with climatic conditions and specific information concerning past,present and future groundwater usage.The availability of tools that allow the integrated analysis of local hydrogeological situations, in reference to the widerareas where they are located, allows numerous applications. The system, in fact, is not only aimed to archiving, queryingand mapping, but also to operate spatial analysis and the implementation of calculation systems, to return thehydrogeological conceptual models, supporting both the management of groundwater resources and the knowledge forthe protection of coastal environments, and groundwater in general.

Indicator-based approaches are often used to monitor land degradation and desertification from the global to the very local scale. However, there is still little agreement on which indicators may best reflect both status and trends of these phenomena. In this study, various processes of land degradation and desertification have been analyzed in 17 study sites around the world using a wide set of biophysical and socioeconomic indicators. The database described earlier in this issue by Kosmas and others (Environ Manage, 2013) for defining desertification risk was further analyzed to define the most important indicators related to the following degradation processes: water erosion in various land uses, tillage erosion, soil salinization, water stress, forest fires, and overgrazing. A correlation analysis was applied to the selected indicators in order to identify the most important variables contributing to each land degradation process. The analysis indicates that the most important indicators are: (i) rain seasonality affecting water erosion, water stress, and forest fires, (ii) slope gradient affecting water erosion, tillage erosion and water stress, and (iii) water scarcity soil salinization, water stress, and forest fires. Implementation of existing regulations or policies concerned with resources development and environmental sustainability was identified as the most important indicator of land protection.

The risk of failure of transportation embankments due to seepage induced by temporary and occasional impoundments taking place on the upstream side as a consequence of exceptional rainfalls is frequently underestimated. These failure events result from a combination of three main factors, i.e. the flooding event, the hydraulic weakness and the geotechnical weakness of the embankment. Based on the case study of a railway embankment in Southern Italy that collapsed in 2005 due to an upstream impoundment that occurred after few hours of a very intense rainfall, the paper describes a methodological approach aimed at assessing hazard of failure of transportation embankments induced by flooding and seepage. In particular, ccording to hydrological, hydraulic and geotechnical studies performed to define the factors affecting the process of the embankment failure, three subsequent activities are proposed: the historical analysis of flood damages at the watershed scale; and the assessment of the upstream peak impoundment based on hydrological analysis and the embankment stability analysis, these latter to be carried out at the site specific scale. The approach here proposed is planned to be further validated and improved by means of the application to other case studies, characterised by different contexts and embankment structures.

The historical floods that have occurred since the seventeenth century were collected for a study area in southern Italy. Damages caused by floods, rainfall and the main anthropogenic modifications are discussed all together. The aim was to assess whether the frequency of floods is changing and, if so, whether these changes can be attributed to either rainfall and/or anthropogenic modifications. In 4 % of cases, mainly occurred in past centuries, floods damaged people. Hydraulic works, roads and private buildings were the more frequently damaged elements (25, 18 and 14 % of the cases, respectively). The annual variability of rainfall was discussed using an annual index. Short duration-high intensity rainfalls were characterized considering time series of annual maxima of 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 h and daily rainfall. The rainfall shows a decreasing trend, in terms of both the annual maximum of short duration and the annual amount. The population has been progressively increasing since the sixteenth century, except during the years following the catastrophic 1908 earthquake. The rate of population growth has been very high since the second half of the twentieth century; the urbanized areas greatly increased, especially following the second half of the twentieth century. At the same time, the trend of damaging floods has been increasing, especially since the seventies. The analysis indicates that, despite a rainfall trend favourable towards a reduction in flood occurrence, floods damage has not decreased. This seems to be mainly the effect of mismanagement of land use modification

Intense and/or prolonged rainy periods can lead to the development of territorial crisis during which landslides andfloods simultaneously trigger on wide areas. During these crises the possibility to manage the emergency phasesand ensure the maintenance of man activities which are usually carried out in the hit area is mainly tied to the roadnetwork efficiency.Unfortunately, in areas characterized by rugged morphology, long road tracks pass through unstable lands whichare frequently affected by landslide phenomena. At the same time, on coastal areas the road network is most intenselyexposed to the action of rivers, especially if the bridges crossing them are not enough wide to convey alsoordinary river floods.This situation can be easily recognized in many areas all around the world: in the present work we present themethodological approach and an exemplificative case study on a test area located in Calabria (South Italy). Here,also because of a low efficiency of the road network, during heavy rainfall periods, landslides and floods causeseveral traffic interruptions which hinder or set back the movements of people and stuffs and, in the most severecases, make difficult emergency management actions.Data concerning damage caused to the road network by landslides and floods have been extracted from a widearchive containing data on historical landslides and floods occurred through the past centuries all over the region.For the selected study area these data have been uploaded in a GIS, in order to obtain the phenomena/damagedistribution during the most severe rainfall events occurred through the past century. Data concerning triggeringrainfall, extracted from a regional rainfall database, have been treated in order to schematize some main models ofrainfall/phenomena distribution which occurred in the past and can be used for preventive measures.The results of this activity can be exploited for practical purposes, to define scenarios and strategies for risk management,to suggest priorities in policy towards disaster mitigation and preparedness and to predispose defensivemeasures and civil protection plans ranked according to the type's situation to cope with.

The attention of local communities and authorities was focused on the level of groundwater nitrate of a wide coastal karstic aquifer, not far from the town of Bari (southern Italy), worried about the potential effect of sanitary and unsecure landfills. The study considered each potential source of nitrate, considering the type of local land use: mineral fertilizers, septic waste, animal manure and landfill leachate. The hydrochemical investigation was conducted on groundwater of the limestone aquifer and on leachate samples. The most important chemical parameters (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl-, SO42-, NO3-) and some minor constituent (Fe, Mn, Hg, As, Zn) are taken into account. In particular the environmental isotopes of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) were used to identify the groundwater provenance and geochemical reactions. The stable isotopes oxygen-18 (18O) and deuterium (2H) were used to investigate the origin of water in the aquifer system in the study area. The combination of NO3- concentration with ?15N-NO3- and 18O-NO3- in water also provides valuable information for identifying different sources of NO3- to the coastal aquifer. Samples of groundwater and leachate were analysed for 13C and Tritium (3H). Previous studies have demonstrated that the biogeochemical processes within the landfill environment can produce a unique composition for these isotopes, therefore they can be utilized successfully to delineate leachate influence. On-going results are discussed in details for each type of potential source of groundwater quality degradation.

Where the unique natural water resource is groundwater, is the case of wide karstic area, the attention and the susceptibility of local communities and authorities to groundwater risks can be so high to determine relevant misunderstanding due the existence of a number of landfills. For solve this kind of situation, a multi-methodological approach is proposed with the purpose to clarify the role of landfill leakage in terms of groundwater quality degradation risks.The selected study area (SSA) is narrow portion of a wide and deep coastal karstic aquifer, for these characteristics to be considered a case of high complexity and susceptibility. Mainly nitrate and secondly iron groundwater concentration were considered anomalously high in some well of the SSA, not far from Bari (main town of Apulia, a region of Southern Italy), worried about the potential effects of some landfills located in SSA. Five landfills have operated from 1975, one after the other, using increasing safety and technological devices to reduce risks due to leachate leakages with consequent groundwater quality degradation. The multi-methodological approach, which could be potentially applied worldwide, includes: the hydrogeological site characterization; the chemical study and the multi-isotope characterization of groundwater and leachate; the land use analysis and the estimation of nitrogen contributions deriving from agricultural activities, focusing on the use of fertilizers; themineralogical study of groundwater suspended particles to define the origin of some substances, focusing on iron and manganese, relevant for the SSA. The hydrogeological site characterisation highlighted the local peculiarties of the aquifer.The chemical study was focused on the most important chemical features (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl-, SO4 2-, NO3-), especially to define geochemical peculiarties, along with some minor chemical elements were taken into account, to define globally the groundwater quality and the leachate characteristics.The environmental isotopes of hydrogen (H), carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O) were used to identify the groundwater provenance and the most relevant geochemical reactions. The oxygen-18 (18O) and deuterium (2H) stable isotopes were used to investigate the origin of water in the aquifer system of the study area. The combination of NO3- concentration with ?15N-NO3-and 18O-NO3- in groundwater also provides valuable information for identifying the true sourcesof anthropoghenic NO3-. Groundwater and leachate samples were analysed for 13C and Tritium(3H), completing the framework of knowledge on the role of leachate on groundwater as previous studies have demonstrated that the biogeochemical processes occurring within the landfill environment can produce a unique composition of these isotopes and therefore they can be utilized successfully to delineate the potential leachate influence. The land use analysis highlighted quantity and type of used fertilizers pe

The Sibari Plain, located in northeastern Calabria (southern Italy), represents a large coastal alluvial plain withconsiderable agricultural and tourist development. The plain is crossed by secondary ephemeral rivers and by the CratiRiver, the main regional river. The area is characterized by low rainfall and by the presence of a shallow unconfined andoutcropping aquifer lying on a confined aquifer.A geochemical survey was carried out on 103 selected wells from June to September 2012 in the framework of theproject PON01_ 02818 AMICUS to investigate the chemical and isotopic composition of local groundwaters of the bothaquifers. In situ measurements of electrical conductivity show a mean value of 1.1 mS/cm and a maximum value of 4.2mS/cm close to Crati Delta area. The interpretation of chemical data allows one to recognize 4 hydrochemical facies. TheCa-HCO3 hydrochemical facies (70 samples) has a Total Ionic Salinity (TIS) comprised between 6 and 34 meq/L. It isprobably generated by calcite dissolution, a mineral phase that dissolves very quickly and that is very frequent in thestudy area. The Na-HCO3 waters (13 samples) have TIS of 11 to 46 meq/L partly overlapping or somewhat higher thanthe TIS range of Ca-HCO3 ones. The origin of these groundwaters is probably due to reflow of Ca-HCO3 groundwater inshallow aquifers, previously flooded with seawater and/or brackish water (freshening). The Na-Cl hydrochemical faciese (14 samples) show a wide TIS range, from 22 to 80 meq/L, generally higher than that of Ca-HCO3 water, but still belowthe TIS of 1210 meq/L of mean seawater. These waters are typically found in aquifers located near the coast and in thearea of the Crati Delta. Close to the coastline, the origin of these waters can be related to ingression of seawater and/orbrackish water within the sediments of the alluvial plain. This intrusion of seawater and/or brackish water takes placeeither directly (salt wedge), or through inflow of seawater along the riverbeds and subsequent infiltration into thesurrounding shallow aquifers hosted in the alluvial deposits. This process may be favored by intense pumping from wellslocated near the riverbeds. The presence of Na-Cl waters in the inland area could be related to local upflow of deep brines(recorded in deep exploration boreholes) along tectonic discontinuities. The Ca-Cl type (3 samples) has TIS of 33-49meq/L, exceeding that of the Ca-HCO3 waters. This is a chemical composition generated by ionic exchange consequentto seawater ingression.Furthermore, the average infiltration elevation for the groundwaters of the Sibari Plain was obtained by means of thed18O and d2H values of H2O. The computed average infiltration elevations, supported by the results of the numericalgroundwater modelling, suggest that the Sibari Plain aquifers system receives underground inflows from the surroundingPollino and Sila massifs.

Geochemical processes occurring at the seawater/freshwater interface were studied for the aquifer feeding the Santa Cesarea thermal springs, located along the coastal sector of the Salento peninsula (southern Italy). Inthis coastal area, seawater is moving into the freshwater carbonate aquifer, pushing so inland beneath the freshwater and creating so an extremely active geochemical environment. In the transition zone, the interaction between the freshwater/saltwater and the aquifer rocks could affect the geochemical composition of the groundwater itself, modifying it even profoundly, as discussed in the paper. The geochemical processes occurring at a seawater/freshwater interface are also described together with the chemical composition of Santa Cesarea thermal springs.

The progressive population growth in coastal areas and the increasing groundwater discharge, together with peculiarities of carbonate coastal aquifers constitute a huge worldwide problem, particularly relevant for coastal aquifers of the Mediterranean basin. Carbonate aquifers in coastal regions are well known to be highly vulnerable, especially if hit by karstic phenomena, to the quality and quantity degradation of groundwater resources, not only for the increasing water demand and the decreasing recharge due to climate changes. The coastal carbonate aquifers of the Mediterranean Sea, in particular the Adriatic and Ionian coast that extend between western Greece and Italy up to the eastern coast of Sicily, not only ensure the socio-economic development of the populations but feeds with spring waters valuable wetland environments with negative effects on ecosystems.The aim of this study is to offer systematic and synoptic knowledge, useful to management and forecast tools, to assure enduring availability of high quality groundwater, conciliating water demand satisfaction with the ecological needs of coastal environment also in the case of transnational situations. A geodatabase, collecting information for all carbonate aquifers present along the Adriatic and Ionian coast, have been created. At the core, there is a Geographic Information System, in which are placed the spatial information regarding the geology of aquifers, hydrogeological and geochemical features, together with climatic data and specific information concerning past, present and future groundwater use. The availability of tools that allow the integrated analysis of local hydrogeological situations, in reference to the wider areas where they are located, allows numerous applications. The system, in fact, is not only aimed to archiving, querying and mapping, but also to operate spatial analysis and the implementation of calculation systems, to return the hydrogeological conceptual models, supporting both the management of groundwater resources and the knowledge for the protection of coastal environments, and groundwater in general.

Carbonate aquifers, located in foreland tectonic settings, could represent important thermal water resources outside the volcanic areas, supplying spas or geothermal installations. Thermal springs constitute the discharge areas of deep marine and continental groundwater flowing within these carbonate aquifers whose hydraulic conductivity and the relevant geothermal fluid migration are strictly controlled by both the discontinuity rock network and the karst processes involving the foreland environment. An example of these springs occurs along the south-easternmost portion of the Apulia region (Southern Italy) where some sulphurous and warm waters (22-33 °C) flow out in partially submerged caves located along the coast, thus supplying the spas of Santa Cesarea Terme (referred as SCT in the following). Some hypotheses about the origin of these warm waters were proposed up to now by previous researches but some uncertainties still exist. For this reason, the SCT area was selected in order to define the conceptual model of the geothermal resources related to the thermal springs and, as a consequence, the origin of the thermal springs. This SCT area is one of the pilot site of the Vigor Project (Evaluation of the geothermal potential of Regions of Convergence), promoted by the Italian Ministry of Economic Development and National Research Council. Geological and hydrogeological surveys, including geo-electrical prospecting, and chemical and isotopic analyses of both groundwater and seawater were carried out. Stable isotopes (e.g. ?18O, ?D) were used to define the origin of the thermal waters and the recharge mechanism of the geothermal systems while the radiocarbonate 14C was determined for estimating the age of the thermal waters.All the geological, hydrogeological and geochemical data acquired during the project were so analyzed in order to define the conceptual model of the SCT geothermal resource. The thermal waters arise from ancient seawaters infiltrated at great depth within the seabed substratum, located in front of the Santa Cesarea coastal sector. Moreover allthe data were examined to improve the knowledge of the groundwater flow system, thus assessing the possibility of using low-temperature geothermal fluids to fulfill the thermal needs of the town of Santa Cesarea Terme.

All natural waters contain dissolved minerals from interactions with atmospheric and soil gases, mixing with other solutions, and/or interactions with the biosphere and lithosphere. In many cases, these processes resultin natural waters containing solute or salinity above concentrations recommended for a specified use, which creates significant social and economic problems. Groundwater salinisation can be caused by natural phenomena and anthropogenic activities. For the former case, we can distinguish terrestrial and marine phenomena. Approximately 16% of the total are a of continental earth is potentially in volvedin groundwater salinisation. Seawater intrusion can be considered to be the primary phenomenon for study interms of groundwater salinisation. Three schematic approaches to the protection of groundwater via salinisation mitigation and/or groundwater salinity improvement are described; these approaches are the engineering approach, the discharge management approach, and the water and land management approach. The engineering approach is realised with the purpose of controlling the salinisation, optimising the well discharge with specific technical solutions and/or completing works to improve the quality and/or quantity of the discharged fresh groundwater. The discharge management approach encompasses at least an entire coastal aquifer and defines rules concerning groundwater utilisation and well discharge. The water and land management approach should be applied on there gional scale. The practical study of Apulian karstic coastal aquifers is discussed in detail. Previously experienced management difficultie sare described, as well as a proposed multi-methodological approach based on monitoring networks, the spatiotemporal analysis of groundwater quality changes, and multiparameter well logging. The core of this approach is the definition of the salinity threshold value be tween pure fresh groundwater and any fresh and saline groundwater mixture. The basic or single tools were defined to be simple, quick and cost-effective to be applicable to the widestrange of situations.

In karstic areas, the mean annual stream flow is low in terms of mean annual net rainfall percentage, and, in many cases, stream flow is so rare to be considered an exceptional independent of the peak flow value. Nevertheless, many types of flooding processes can be identified in karsts. We consider the recharge-related flooding of a bare karst, with a case study of a Mediterranean area dominated by semi-arid climate. In these cases floods are rare, short, and sudden but the effects are often very dramatic. Three types of analyses were used. The historical analysis focused on the series of past or historical flood events, which provided a means to define the flood recurrence period and damage levels, and the main steps of anthropogenic development expressed by the population number and needs. The hydrological analysis considered long time series of annual maximum short rainfalls, in order to assess the return period of high intensity rainfall that caused the studied flood event. The geomorphological analysis considered rainfall, the hydrogeological characteristics of outcropping rocks and soils and the geomorphological data of the drainage basin to calculate net rainfall and peak flow characteristics. We explored historical flood events for the study area, characterising the role of human effects on damages, and used a recent flood event to test our capability to estimate ephemeral river flow on the basis of rainfall measurements. The historical analysis of floods and damages highlighted four flood periods, distinguished on the basis of the recurrence period and the level of damages. It is clear that the lessons of past flood events are quickly forgotten. The hydro-geomorphological analyses showed the peculiarities of the 2005 flood event. The maximum rainfall return period for the 2005 event was due to exceptional three-hour cumulative rainfall. This study shows that we can estimate peak flow characteristics even when time series of river flows are not available, thereby allowing us to improve our capability to forecast the flooding effects of severe storms in karstic areas.

Historical data about floods represent an important tool for the comprehension of the hydrological processes,the estimation of hazard scenarios as a basis for Civil Protection purposes, as a basis of the rational land usemanagement, especially in karstic areas, where time series of river flows are not available and the river drainage israre.The research shows the importance of the improvement of existing flood database with an historical approach,finalized to collect past or historical floods event, in order to better assess the occurrence trend of floods, in thecase for the Apulian region (south Italy).The main source of records of flood events for Apulia was the AVI (the acronym means Italian damaged areas)database, an existing Italian database that collects data concerning damaging floods from 1918 to 1996.The database was expanded consulting newspapers, publications, and technical reports from 1996 to 2006.In order to expand the temporal range further data were collected searching in the archives of regional libraries.About 700 useful news from 17 different local newspapers were found from 1876 to 1951. From a critical analysisof the 700 news collected since 1876 to 1952 only 437 were useful for the implementation of the Apulia database.The screening of these news showed the occurrence of about 122 flood events in the entire region.The district of Bari, the regional main town, represents the area in which the great number of events occurred; thehistorical analysis confirms this area as flood-prone.There is an overlapping period (from 1918 to 1952) between old AVI database and new historical dataset obtainedby newspapers. With regard to this period, the historical research has highlighted new flood events not reported inthe existing AVI database and it also allowed to add more details to the events already recorded.This study shows that the database is a dynamic instrument, which allows a continuous implementation of data,even in real time.More details on previous results of this research activity were recently published (Polemio, 2010; Basso et al.,2012; Lonigro et al., 2013)

Where the unique natural water resource is groundwater, the attention and the susceptibility of local communities and authorities to groundwater quality degradation risks can be so high to determine relevant problems to waste management, especially for landfills in operation or to be realised. A multi-methodological approach was suggested with the purpose to clarify the role of landfill leakage on groundwater quality degradation.The selected study area (SSA) hosts some landfills in a narrow portion of a wide and deep coastal karstic aquifer, for these characteristics to be considered a case of high hydrogeological complexity and vulnerability. News concerning nitrate and secondly iron groundwater concentration anomalously high caused concern in the population and strong local opposition to landfills.The multi-methodological approach includes: the hydrogeological site characterization; the chemical study and the multi-isotope characterization of groundwater and leachate; the land use analysis and the estimation of nitrogen contributions deriving from fertilizers; the mineralogical study of groundwater suspended particles to define the role of natural soil substances.The hydrogeological site characterisation highlighted the local peculiarities of the aquifer. The chemical study was used to define geochemical features, groundwater and leachate characteristics and their macroscopic mixing.The environmental isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen were used to investigate the groundwater origin, the most relevant geochemical reactions, the existence of groundwater-leachate mixing, and the sources of anthropogenic NO3-. The land use analysis highlighted quantity and type of used fertilizers permitting to compare these with groundwater in terms of isotopic signature. The mineralogical study demonstrated the role of suspend natural particles due the presence of terre rosse (red or residual soils) in groundwater.The approach confirmed that there are not the groundwater quality degradation effects of landfills, contributing to reassure population and institutions, simplifying the waste management.

This paper deals with thermo-mineral groundwater of the Mondragone plain (Campania, southern Italy) and the possibility of exploitation of this low enthalpy geothermal resource. In the NW sector of this plain, at the bottom of Mt. Pizzuto, near the sea, there are thermo-mineral waters of sodium-chloride type, sulfureous and rich in CO2 whose recharge is from the Mt. Pizzuto groundwater body which somehow floating on seawater. In the SE sector of the plain, close to the calcareous Mt. Petrino, a 80 m deep well has intercepted, in the carbonate basement of the plain, thermo-mineral groundwater, sulfureous and rich in CO2, as in the NW sector, but displaying a calcium-bicarbonate composition. The chemical and the isotopic analyses allowed to verify that these types of groundwater are due both to meteoric waters infiltration and to enrichment of endogenous CO2 and H2S, at fairly high temperature.In the case of Mt. Pizzuto, the upwelling gas intercepts evaporitic formation and, probably, causes saltwater intrusion, with a peak from June to September. In the case of the Petrinum well, the gases involve "saline formation groundwater", affecting upwards the groundwater body of Mt. Petrino. Moreover, the rising of the gases increases the dissolution of the carbonate aquifer, determining very high values of HCO3 ions in the thermo-mineral groundwater. The upwelling of the gases occurs along the major fault that crosses NE-SW the plain of Mondragone at the southern edge of the Mt. Petrino.Finally, the understanding of the mineralization patterns allowed to identify in the plain the best location for a geothermal exploration well.

Geochemical study allowed to recognize four groups of groundwater for the Sibari Plain (Southern Italy): Ca-HCO3, Na-Cl, Ca-Cl and Na-HCO3. Chloride-rich waters are located close to the Crati mouth that could be a preferential path for seawater ingression. In fact, seawater and brackish waters could move inland along the stream channel and enter the nearby aquifers due to excessive pumping of wells positioned near the river. In alternative, the occurrence of processes, such as ion exchange or dissolution of halite-bearing Miocene evaporite deposits can generate aqueous solutions with similar characteristics to those produced by seawater ingression. Moreover, was calculated the infiltration average (Hi, m a.s.l.) for groundwater of the Sibari Plain by the following equations:The data showed a lower average of the infiltrations in the inner part of the Sibari Plain, with values between 550 and 870 m a.s.l., and higher values (1000/1500 m a.s.l.) moving to NW and SE.

Within the framework of the activities aimed at studying current and future exploitation and the related sustainability of geothermal resources, the Working Group IDROGEOTER was set-up within the IAH Italian Chapter. The first activity of IDROGEOTER's workplan is the analysis of state of the art in current use of low-to high enthalpy geothermal resources in Italy. Detailed studies supporting the possible optimization of the use of geothermal resources, carried out in different areas are described in the paper, with details regarding the Veneto Region (NE Italy). Further studies and inventory of data and applications will be part of the activities of IDROGEOTER, which will also include the preparation of a proposal of guidelines for hydro-geothermal studies.

The increasing overexploitation of water resources is observed on a global scale in the previous decades; this trend involves the coastal regions of Mediterranean Basin (Van Beynen et alii, 2012). As an effect of increasing groundwater discharge from coastal aquifers, the phenomenon of seawater intrusion is becoming a serious problem for most of the coastal aquifers, especially in the Mediterranean area (COST, 2003; COST, 2005). The aim of this paper is to present the modeling of a coastal porous aquifer located in the complex plain of Sibari (Southern Italy), a plain deeply modified as an effect of reclamation works realized after thirties. The model was implemented using piezometric historical data (from thirties) to establish the effect of seawater intrusion when the well discharge was negligible (natural conditions), the modification in subsequent decades, to be used for forecasting purpose and for evaluate the evolution of groundwater resource. The area actually represents a landscape with anthropic equilibrium based on the works of a land reclamation project (1960s-1990s). Study area is about 365 km2 for a coastline of about 35 km, about which an hydrogeological conceptual model was defined. The area can be conceptualized into three hydrogeological complexes (from the top): sand complex, a clay complex and a sand and conglomerate complex, constituting the deep aquifer, the bottom of which is not well-defined. Shallow aquifer is predominantly fed by direct rainwater infiltration. Deep aquifer is fed by outflows of the mountainous aquifers as the case of limestone aquifer of Pollino Mount,and of shallow granitic aquifer of the Sila massif (Guerricchio and Melidoro, 1975). The maximum piezometric levels of the deep aquifer are equivalent to approximately 40 m asl, so in some areas it presents artesian feature.The computer codes selected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW (McDonald and Harbaugh, 1998) and SEAWAT (Guo and Langevin, 2002). This groundwater flow modelling is based on the concept of a equivalent homogeneous porous medium by which it is assumed that the real heterogeneous aquifer can be simulated as homogeneous porous media within cells or elements (Anderson, 2002). The modeled aquifer area was uniformly discretized, using Peclet number, into a finite difference grid of 97,735 cells of 240 m x 350 m. For the vertical discretization, model was divided into five layers of variable thicknesses, defined on the basis of a multi-methodological geological survey. Climatic, hydrological and agricultural data were processed to defines inputs for the numerical model based on the variable-density flow. An hydrological balance using monthly and annual of 13 thermo-pluviometric stations falling in the study area, in the time period 1930-1975, was done (Polemio and Casarano, 2008, Polemio et alii, 2013). The numerical model was calibrated with PEST code with a correlation coefficient equal to 0,90. Preliminary results of ste

Seawater intrusion is a pervasive problem affecting coastal aquifer, where the concentration of population and the increasing water demand creates risks of overexploitation, especially in those areas where is the only resource of drinking and irrigation water. This phenomenon is more considerable for the coastal karst aquifers, as observed in many Mediterranean countries and in some Italian regions as Friuli, Sardegna, Sicilia, Lazio, Campania and Puglia. This note aims to describe a research activity finalised to define a numerical model as management tools for groundwater resource of Salento (South Italy) to reduce the quantitative and qualitative degradation risks. The numerical codes used was MODFLOW (McDonald and Harbaught, 1988) and SEAWAT (Guo and Langevin, 2002). The active domain of the study area (active cells) covered approximately 2,300 km2 with 45,925 cells. Vertically, to allow a good lithological and hydrogeological discretization, the area was divided into 12 layers, from 214 to -350 m asl. Thickness and geometry of layers was defined on the basis of the aquifer conceptualisation based on the 3D knowledge of hydrogeological complexes.On the basis of detailed geological and hydrogeological conceptualisation, the climate change effects were considered in terms of natural recharge variations from 1930 to 1999 (Cotecchia et al., 2005; Polemio and Casarano, 2008). To take account of anthropogenic activity, mainly due to tourism and agriculture, the discharging trend was assessed, focusing on late decenniums (eighties and nineties), in which the discharge increase was mainly observed. Models representing the natural steady-state condition (using data of thirties) and transient scenarios of late decenniums were realised.The purpose of this first model implementation was, besides validated model, to assess the groundwater availability and quality in a recent period of seventy years (Polemio and Romanazzi, 2012; Romanazzi and Polemio, 2013).Results emphasize an essential decrease of piezometric levels and a worsening of seawater intrusion. On these bases, six forecasting transient scenarios were implemented, referred to future periods of about twenty years (2000-2020, 2021-2040 and 2041-2060) with the aim to predicting the evolution of piezometric level and seawater intrusion. For forecast data about precipitation and temperature, among the many models in the literature, we referred to the model developed by Giorgi and Lionello (2008), in relation to the defined scenario A1B. The model predicts temperature variations (°C) and precipitation percentage variation for the period 2001-2100. It was considered an average temperature variation form 0.9 °C (2001-2020) to 2.4 °C (2040-2060). Precipitation shows a negative percentage change (referred to 1960-80) equal to -3.9, -5.9 and -9,0% respectively for 2000-2020, 2021-2040 and 2041-2060. These climatic data are in agreement with other climate change models (Garcia- Ruiz et al., 2011).

The attention of local communities and authorities was focused on the level of nitrate concentration in ground-water of a wide coastal karstic aquifer, not far from the town of Bari (southern Italy), worried about the poten-tial effect of sanitary and unsecure landfills. Five landfills have operated from 1975, one after the other, using increasing safety and technological devices to reduce risks due to leachate leakages with consequent groundwater quality degradation.A multi-methodological approach was conducted to define the origin of nitrate contamination. The approach includes hydrogeological site characterization, chemical and isotopic study of groundwater and leachate, land use analysis and estimation of nitrogen contributions deriving from agricultural activities, focus-ing on the use of fertilizers and mineralogical study of groundwater suspended particles to define the origin of the iron and manganese in the water samples.In particular, the environmental isotopes of oxygen-18 (18O) and deuterium (2H) were used to investigate the origin of water in the aquifer system of the study area. The combination of NO3- concentration with ?15N-NO3- and 18O-NO3- in water also provides valuable information for identifying different sources of NO3- to the coastal aquifer. Groundwater and leachate samples were analyzed for 13C and Tritium (3H). Previous studies have demonstrated that the biogeochemical processes occurring within the landfill environment can produce a unique composition of these isotopes and therefore they can be utilized successfully to delineate the potential leachate influence.

In Italia, le frane e le inondazioni sono fenomeni diffusi, ricorrenti e pericolosi. Fra il 1960 e il 2011 ci sono stati almeno 789 eventi di frana che hanno prodotto oltre 5000 vittime (di cui 3417 morti e 15 dispersi) in 522 comuni (6,4% del totale). Nello stesso periodo si sono verificati almeno 505 eventi d'inondazione che hanno prodotto più di 1700 vittime (di 753 morti e 68 dispersi), in 372 comuni (4,6% del totale). Fra il 2005 e il 2011, si sono avuti 82 eventi di frana che hanno prodotto oltre 480 vittime (101 morti, 6 dispersi, 374 feriti) in 70 comuni, e 39 inondazioni in altrettanti comuni con 89 vittime (59 morti, 1 disperso, 29 feriti). Nel periodo 2005-2011 tutte le Regioni hanno sofferto almeno un evento di frana o d'inondazione con vittime, a conferma della diffusione geografica del rischio geo-idrologico. Le cifre dimostrano inequivocabilmente come l'impatto che gli eventi geo-idrologici hanno sulla popolazione sia un problema prioritariamente di rilevanza sociale che enfatizza la rilevanza delle attività scientifiche che possano conseguire risultati utili a ridurre gli effetti negativi.

Damaging geo-Hydrogeological Events (DHEs) are defined as the occurrence of destructive phenomena (such as landslides and floods) that can cause damage to people and goods during periods of bad weather. These phenomena should be analyzed together as they actually occur because their interactions can both amplify the damage and obstruct emergency management. The occurrence of DHEs depends on the interactions between climatic and geomorphological features: except for long-term climatic changes, these interactions can be considered constant, and for this reason, some areas are systematically affected. However, damage scenarios can change; events that occurred in the past could presently cause different effects depending on the modifications that occurred in the geographical distribution of vulnerable elements. We analyzed a catastrophic DHE that in 1951 affected an area 3700 km2 wide, located in Calabria (southern Italy), with four-day cumulative rainfall exceeding 300 mm and return periods of daily rain exceeding 500 Y. It resulted in 101 victims and 4500 homeless individuals. The probability that a similar event will happen again in the future is assessed using the return period of the triggering rainfall, whereas the different anthropogenic factors are taken into account by means of the population densities at the time of the event and currently. The result is a classification of regional municipalities according to the probability that events such as the one analyzed will occur again in the future and the possible effects of this event on the current situation.

The Damaging Hydrogeological Events (DHEs) can be defined as the occurrence of one or more simultaneousphenomena, such as droughts, windstorms, heat waves, landslides, floods and secondary floods (i.e. rapidaccumulation or pounding of surface water with very low flow velocity), causing damages. They represent aserious problem, especially in DHE-prone areas with growing urbanization, where the infiltration capability islimited by buildings and where the vulnerability is higher than other areas.The paper proposes a methodology, based on both historical and time series approaches, used for describing theinfluence of climatic variability and urban development on the number of phenomena observed.The historical approach is finalised to collect phenomenon historical data, very important for the comprehensionof the evolution of a study area. Phenomenon historical data is useful for expanding the historical period ofinvestigation in order to assess the occurrence trend of DHEs. The historical analysis of DHEs can supportdecision making and land-use planning, ultimately reducing natural risks.The time series approach includes the collection and the statistical analysis of climatic data (monthly rainfall, wetdays, rainfall intensity, and temperature), useful to characterise the climate variations and trends and to roughlyassess the effects of these trends on river discharge and on the triggering of landslides. The time series approach iscompleted by tools to analyse simultaneously all data types.The study of land use variations, with a special emphasis on the urban areas, is important to understand how themodifications occurred in the territory, especially in terms of vulnerability, could influence the occurrence ofDHEs. The methodology can be applied simultaneously to floods and landslides and was tested considering themunicipality of Bari (southern Italy), particularly affected by flood events.Since the climate trend (decreasing trend of rainfall and rainfall intensity and an increasing trend of wet days andtemperatures) does not show favourable conditions for the increase of the annual number of damaging floods, itstrend is increasing. The role of anthropogenic modifications and the mismanagement of risk-prone areas shouldbe considered to justify the increasing occurrences of floods.A validation of this hypothesis comes from the study of land use modifications, carried out comparing differenttemporal levels of land use (from 1959 to 2006). The analysis shows, starting from 1959 to 2006, a significantincrease in urban areas (of about 50%) on the entire regional territory.The municipality of Bari, the regional main town, has undergone a remarkable development of its urban areas,from 12.45 Km2 in 1959 to 58.82 Km2 in 2006. The consequent increased vulnerability of this area has beenhighlighted during the recent flood event occurred in 2005, which caused six casualties, numerous injuries anddamages to

La percezione del rischio idrogeologico e delle cause di piene e frane

A methodological approach based on analysing landslides that occurred over a long period and climatic data characterising that period is presented. The method investigates whether there are any effects of climate on landslide triggering. The approach has been tested in Calabria (Italy). Both landslide and climatic data have been obtained from available databases that have been expanded. Landslide data came from historical archives and newspapers, while the climatic analysis is based on daily and monthly series of rainfall and temperature. The method simplifiesthe comparative analysis of several time series by defining some indices (the monthly, bi-monthly, and . . . m-monthly indices of precipitation, temperature, wet days and precipitation, and the monthly landslide number)that can be used to study phenomena, such as landslides, that are characterised by spatial and temporal variability.For Calabria, the number of landslides is correlated to monthly precipitation, wet days and precipitation intensity.Thus, landslide occurrence could be roughly forecasted using these climatic data. Despite the favourable climatic trend, landslides are not decreasing because the recent utilisation of landslide-prone areas increases the vulnerability.The analysis is detailed in a selected landslide prone area. For this area trends of different types of landslides, of land use and of anthropic modifications is discussed.

Le acque sotterranee e le relazioni con le acque marine

Le acque sotterranee e le relazioni con le acque marine: il caso del Mar Piccolo di Taranto

Nelle zone carsiche il deflusso fluviale è molto basso in termini di percentuale delle piogge efficaci; in molti casi, è così raro da considerarsi eccezionale ogni qual volta si verifichi a prescindere dal valore di picco della piena. Tuttavia, molti tipi di processi alluvionali possono essere identificati in un territorio carsico. Discussi i diversi tipi, si considerano le alluvioni relative a un territorio dominato dal carso nudo, con un caso di studio di una zona mediterranea dominata interessata da clima semi-arido, corrispondente in parte alla vasta area urbanizzata di Bari. In questo casi le inondazioni sono rare, brevi e improvvise, ma gli effetti sono spesso molto drammatici. Sono stati utilizzati tre tipi di analisi. L'analisi storica incentrata sulla serie di eventi alluvionali storici, che ha fornito un mezzo per definire il periodo di occorrenza delle piene e i livelli di danno, risultate da porsi in relazione alle principali tappe dello sviluppo delle attività umane. L'analisi idrologica ha considerato lunghe serie temporali di precipitazioni brevi massimi annuali, al fine di valutare il tempo di ritorno delle precipitazioni di breve durata e alta intensità che causano gli eventi di piena. L'analisi geomorfologica ha considerato le precipitazioni meteoriche, le caratteristiche idrogeologiche delle rocce e terreni affioranti e i dati geomorfologici del bacino imbrifero per calcolare le precipitazioni nette o efficaci e le caratteristiche dell'onda di piena. L'analisi storica delle inondazioni e dei danni ha evidenziato quattro periodi di piena, distinti sulla base del periodo di occorrenza e l'entità dei danni. Appare che l'insegnamento fornito da tali eventi catastrofici sia stato rapidamente rapidamente dimenticato. Le analisi di tipo idrologico e geomorfologico hanno mostrato le peculiarità della piena del 2005. Il tempo di ritorno massimo delle precipitazioni per l'evento 2005 è stato dovuto alla eccezionale pioggia cumulata in tre ore. Questo studio dimostra che vi siano le metodologie per stimare le caratteristiche di flusso di picco anche quando le serie temporali di misura del deflusso fluviale non siano disponibili, anche nel caso di territori dominati dal prevalere dell'infiltrazione sul ruscellamento, consentendo in tal modo di migliorare la nostra capacità di prevedere gli effetti di gravi inondazioni anche nelle aree carsiche.

E' stata effettuata una ricerca per ricostruire la serie storica delle piene verificatesi a partire dal XVII secolo in un settore della Calabria sud-occidentale coincidente con il comune di Reggio Calabria. Dei 150 eventi di piena costituenti la serie, il 4% è responsabile di danni alla popolazione, mentre nei restanti casi i danneggiamenti sono a carico di infrastrutture, opere idrauliche ed edilizia. La serie storica è stata analizzata congiuntamente ai dati di pioggia (per il periodo in cui essi sono disponibili) e alle principali modificazioni legate all'incremento demografico dell'area analizzata. Lo scopo è di valutare se la frequenza delle piene responsabili di danni è cambiata durante il periodo analizzato e il ruolo esercitato su tale frequenza dalle piogge e dalle modificazioni antropiche del territorio. L'analisi evidenzia che il trend delle piene in grado di generare danni è in crescita, mentre il trend delle piogge, come osservato anche a scala regionale, è in diminuzione. Al contrario, i trend della popolazione e dell'espansione urbanistica mostrano una crescita, molto marcata negli ultimi decenni. L'incremento delle piene catastrofiche appare, dunque, connesso più alla progressiva urbanizzazione delle aree inondabili che alle modificazioni della piovosità.

Natural waters contain dissolved minerals from interactions with atmospheric and soil gases, mixing with othersolutions, and/or interactions with the biosphere and lithosphere. In many cases, these processes result in natural waterscontaining solute or salinity above concentrations recommended for a specified use, which creates significant social andeconomic problems.There are different measures, actions and practices for managing groundwater when the natural resource is exposedto salinization. Some of these measures have a mitigation objective. Other measures have a more adaptive approach andaccept the high groundwater salinity but adjusting the groundwater use so that it is not harmful.Moving from the lowest to the highest complexity, these approaches are the engineering approach, the dischargemanagement approach, and the water and land management approach.This research classifies the sources of groundwater salinization and defines in detail different management approachesto protecting the groundwater through salinization mitigation and/or groundwater salinity improvements. By focusing theattention on the effect of seawater intrusion, practical solutions are proposed.

We have been witness, during the second half of the 20th century, of an increase of groundwater discharge.Today a great number of aquifers are overexploited in the world. Problems ties to overexploitation, as piezometricdecline and increase of seawater intrusion, are so more amplify in the coastal aquifers, and in particular, in karstcoastal aquifers. Seawater intrusion, in fact, is a pervasive problem affecting coastal aquifer, where the concentrationof population and the increasing water demand creates risks of overexploitation, especially in those areaswhere is the only resource of drinking and irrigation water. The whole effect could be a groundwater quality andquantity degradation. This is very often the case of coastal karst aquifers of Mediterranean countries. The generalpurpose of this paper is to prove the capability of large-scale numerical models in management of groundwater, inparticular for achieve forecast scenarios to evaluate the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources. Studyarea is the karst coastal aquifer of Salento (Southern Italy), largely utilized to satisfy the agricultural demand anddrinking demand with huge effects in terms of reduced availability and increasing salinity. The computer codesselected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW and SEAWAT. Groundwater flow modelling isbased on the concept of a equivalent homogeneous porous medium. Three forecast transient scenarios, referred to2001-2020, 2021-2040 and 2041-2060, were implemented, on the basis of calibrated and validated model, withthe aim to predicting the evolution of piezometric level and seawater intrusion. The scenarios were discussedconsidering the effects of climate change, sea level rise and change of sea salinity. Some irrigation dischargescenarios were considered in the discussion . Results shows qualitative and quantitative groundwater trends from1930 to 2060 and emphasizes an essential decrease of piezometric level and a huge worsening of the groundwatersalinisation due seawater intrusion.More details on previous results of this research activity were recently published (Polemio and Romanazzi, 2012;Romanazzi and Polemio, 2013).

La prevalente natura carsica del territorio limita la disponibilità di risorse idriche superficiali e conferisce valore particolare alle acque sotterranee della Puglia. Pregevoli per qualità, le acque sotterranee degli acquiferi pugliesi sono state prelevate in misura crescente a partire dai primi decenni del secolo scorso. La crescita dei prelievi ha sottoposto a notevoli "sollecitazioni" il sistema idrogeologico pugliese, dando concretezza ai rischi di degrado sia quantitativo sia qualitativo, rischi tra loro legati nel caso degli acquiferi costieri, quali sono quelli principali pugliesi.L'articolo descrive, con intenzionale brevità, i principali antefatti normativi che hanno regolamentato e regolamentano l'utilizzo delle acque sotterranee pugliesi, ponendo l'attenzione sugli obiettivi che occorre perseguire per coniugare il massimo soddisfacimento della domanda idrica con la duratura tutela di tali preziose risorse naturali e degli equilibri ecologici connessi.Per dare forza agli strumenti di gestione e di controllo e definire chiari obiettivi di tutela è necessario conoscere in modo quantitativo ed accurato quali siano i rischi reali. A questo fine si descrivono brevemente alcuni approcci metodologici accomunati dalla semplicità e dalla ripetibilità delle procedure in contesti non prioritariamente scientifici.L'articolo descrive la variazione della disponibilità della acque sotterranee pugliesi, fondamentalmente discutendo l'andamento dei trend piezometrici e delle portate delle sorgenti (minore attenzione è data al Gargano, per la scarsa disponibilità di dati, e al Tavoliere, per la minore qualità delle acque sotterranee). In sintesi, si osserva una tendenza alla riduzione della disponibilità spiccata ma, per fortuna, non monotona. Tale tendenza è solo in parte giustificabile in relazione alle modificazioni climatiche, che di certo hanno causato un calo della ricarica a partire dagli anni ottanta. Gli effetti più macroscopici riguardano la Murgia e il Tavoliere; rilevanti gli effetti in Salento, in particolare in relazione all'enfatizzazione dei rischi connessi all'intrusione marina.Per la valutazione dell'evoluzione del fenomeno dell'intrusione marina si descrive il criterio a soglia, che persegue l'individuazione del valore di soglia della salinità tra le acque sotterranee dolci e le acque sotterranee contenenti sia pure minime aliquote di acque saline di intrusione marina. Per le acque sotterranee degli acquiferi carbonatici pugliesi detta soglia è risultata pari a circa 0,5 g/l. A partire da tale soglia, si effettua un'analisi spazio-temporale, che permette di individuare le aree soggette a diversa vulnerabilità all'intrusione marina e di discriminare dove i rischi di degrado qualitativo sono più gravi.In ogni caso emerge la drammaticità degli effetti dell'intrusione marina nel Salento e la presenza di estese porzioni del territorio della Murgia e del Salento a rischio di degrado qualitativo per intrusione marina.L'articolo s

The coastal karst aquifers are known to be highly vulnerable to anthropogenic and natural changes, and in particular to the overexploitation of groundwater resources. The high degree of vulnerability is due to their intrinsic characteristics, anthropogenic pollution, and the effects seawater intrusion. The progressive population concentration in coastal areas and the increasing discharge overlapped to peculiarities of karstic coastal aquifers constitute a huge worldwide problem, particularly relevant for coastal aquifers of the Mediterranean basin. In Italy, Apulia, with its coastline extending over 800 km, is the region with the largest coastal karst aquifers. The predominant karstic Apulian features make the region extremely poor of surface water resources and rich of high quality groundwater resources. These resources still allow the social and economic development of population, improving agricultural and tourist opportunities. The continuous increasing well discharge causes or contributes to the groundwater quality degradation, often making the groundwater unusable for irrigation and drinking (Polemio et al. 2009). The strategic importance of groundwater resources and its wise management for Apulian population is due to these risks (Cotecchia and Polemio 1998, Margiotta and Negri 2005). The aim of this study is to define the efficacy of existing management tools and to develop predictive scenarios to identify the best way to reconcile irrigation and drinking water demands with enduring availability of high quality groundwater. The Salento (Salentine Peninsula), was selected being the Apulian aquifer portion exposed to the highest risk of quality degradation due to seawater intrusion.

The study and management of the groundwater resources of a large, deep, coastal, karstic aquifer represent a very complex hydrogeological problem. Here, this problem is successfully approached by using an equivalent porous continuous medium (EPCM) to represent a karstic Apulian aquifer (southern Italy). This aquifer, which is located on a peninsula and extends to hundreds of metres depth, is the sole local source of high-quality water resources. These resources are at risk due to overexploitation, climate change and seawater intrusion. The model was based on MODFLOW and SEAWAT codes. Piezometric and salinity variations from 1930 to 2060 were simulated under three past scenarios (up to 1999) and three future scenarios that consider climate change, different types of discharge, and changes in sea level and salinity. The model was validated using surveyed piezometric and salinity data. An evident piezometric drop was confirmed for the past period (until 1999); a similar dramatic drop appears to be likely in the future. The lateral intrusion and upconing effects of seawater intrusion were non-negligible in the past and will be considerable in the future. All phenomena considered here, including sea level and sea salinity, showed non-negligible effects on coastal groundwater.

The Sibari Plain represents a coastal plain located in the northeastern Calabria Region (southern Italy). The late Pleistocene-Holocene plain evolution is characterized by uplift and alluvial fans development along the outer limit, fault activity and the Crati Delta progradation in the middle sector and its result is a complex stratigraphic architecture.The plain is characterized by two well defined aquifers and the analysis of the hydrostratigraphic units shows a very complex framework made by the association of "jigsaw-puzzle" and "labyrinth" systems. The thicknesses and geometry of aquifers and aquitard were estimated by well-log data to be used for numerical the hydrogeologicalmodelling. The computer codes selected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW and SEAWAT. Model was calibrated with PEST code with a correlation coefficient equal to 0,90. The water balance of both aquifers was calculated.Furthermore, 103 wells were sampled and analyzed for a geochemical characterization. Geochemical data wereinterpreted following a reliable procedure which comprises: the classification of waters and the inspection of chlorideplots, reaction path modeling of ionic exchange by means of the EQ3/6 software package and the interpretation ofisotope data. The final aim of this procedure was the elaboration of the conceptual model of the site, which was basednot only on the outcomes of the interpretation of geochemical data but also on the synthesis of these results withgeological and hydro-geological evidence. The chemistry of groundwaters is dominated by Ca-HCO3 (70 samples) andNa-Cl (14 samples) compositions. The Latter is typical of the coastal areas where sea water ingression or a mixing withbrine deep waters are possible.The presence of buried salt rocks, deep mineralized water bodies and fault system with subsurface evidencessuggests the possible existence of plumes of deep mineralized waters, which use the tectonic discontinuities to risetoward the surface.

The Sibari Plain represents a coastal plain located in the northeastern Calabria Region (southern Italy). The latePleistocene-Holocene plain evolution is characterized by uplift and alluvial fans development along the outer limit, fault activity and the Crati Delta progradation in the middle sector and its result is a complex stratigraphic architecture.The plain is characterized by two well defined aquifers and the analysis of the hydrostratigraphic units shows a very complex framework made by the association of "jigsaw-puzzle" and "labyrinth" systems. The thicknesses and geometry of aquifers and aquitard were estimated by well-log data to be used for numerical the hydrogeological modelling.The computer codes selected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW and SEAWAT. Model was calibrated with PEST code with a correlation coefficient equal to 0,90. The water balance of both aquifers was calculated.Furthermore, 103 wells were sampled and analyzed for a geochemical characterization. Geochemical data were interpreted following a reliable procedure which comprises: the classification of waters and the inspection of chloride plots, reaction path modeling of ionic exchange by means of the EQ3/6 software package and the interpretation of isotope data. The final aim of this procedure was the elaboration of the conceptual model of the site, which was based not only on the outcomes of the interpretation of geochemical data but also on the synthesis of these results with geological and hydro-geological evidence. The chemistry of groundwaters is dominated by Ca-HCO3 (70 samples) and Na-Cl (14 samples) compositions. The Latter is typical of the coastal areas where sea water ingression or a mixing with brine deep waters are possible.The presence of buried salt rocks, deep mineralized water bodies and fault system with subsurface evidences suggests the possible existence of plumes of deep mineralized waters, which use the tectonic discontinuities to rise toward the surface.

We are witnessing an increasing concentration of the human population in coastal areas on a global scale. This trend is associated with a growing demand for water, which is satisfied mainly by using local water resources and groundwater in particular. The phenomenon of seawater intrusion is therefore becoming a more serious problem for most coastal aquifers, whose water resources are obviously at risk of being subject to considerable degradation of quality and quantity. The problem is particularly relevant to karst aquifers, prevalent in the entire Mediterranean area and some Italian regions (Friuli, Sardinia, Sicily and Apulia). The purpose of this paper is to describe research that was performed to conceptualise and numerical model a coastal karst aquifer. This research is significant because of the importance of groundwater resources and the high intensity of changes made to well discharge in the absence of scientifically based management when considering effects on quantity and quality. Salento (Apulia) was selected as a case study, and the changes that occurred over 80 years, starting from the beginning of its exploitation, were characterised. Complex acquisitions, together with climatic, hydrological, geological and agricultural data processing, served as the inputs for a numerical model of variable-density flow and transport created using MODFLOW and SEAWAT codes. In particular, groundwater flow under natural conditions was defined using a simulation in a steady-state condition. Through this simulation, it was possible to define the natural resource quantities and the salinity field, or the quality of groundwater that existed when withdrawals were or negligible (during the 1930s). The transient simulations that we carried out were focused on the twenty years between 1980 and 1999, with the goal of quantifying the effects of the increased discharge used for drinking, industrial and especially irrigation purposes. The validation of the results was accurate due to the availability of high-quality historical piezometric data stemming from the IRPI-BA databases. The overall results demonstrated that the level of groundwater usage from Salento and the increasing discharge trend, due mainly to the global effect of individual water demand, will require a reversal of trends based on management criteria, defined on an aquifer scale and verified with a numerical model, whose potential can be shown by scientific expertise.

The invited talk is focused on monitoring and management of coastal karstic aquifers, starting from an European overview and focusing on the Apulian experience.

The population concentration in coastal areas and the increase of groundwater discharge in combination with the peculiarities of karstic coastal aquifers constitute a huge worldwide problem, which is particularly relevant for coastal aquifers of the Mediterranean basin. This paper offers a review of scientific activities realized to pursue the optimal utilization of Apulian coastal groundwater. Apulia, with a coastline extending for over 800 km, is the Italian region with the largest coastal karst aquifers. Apulian aquifers have suffered both in terms of water quality and quantity. Some regional regulations were implemented from the 1970s with the purpose of controlling the number of wells, well locations, and well discharge. The practical effects of these management criteria, the temporal and spatial trend of recharge, groundwater quality, and seawater intrusion effects are discussed based on long-term monitoring. The efficacy of existing management tools and the development of predictive scenarios to identify the best way to reconcile irrigation and demands for high-quality drinking water have been pursued in a selected area. The Salento peninsula was selected as the Apulian aquifer portion exposed to the highest risk of quality degradation due to seawater intrusion. The capability of large-scale numerical models in groundwater management was tested, particularly for achieving forecast scenarios to evaluate the impacts of climate change on groundwater resources. The results show qualitative and quantitative groundwater trends from 1930 to 2060 and emphasize the substantial decrease of the piezometric level and a serious worsening of groundwater salinization due to seawater intrusion.

The aim of this work is to present a methodology, based both on the use methods of time series analyses andof geospatial analyses of monthly climatic data (rainfall, wet days, rainfall intensity, and temperature), annualmaximum of short-duration rainfall (from 1 hour to 5 days), historical modification of land use, and populationvariations in order to characterise the effects of these variables on the occurrence of landsliding in Dauniaarea, located on the eastern margin of the Southern Apennines thrust belt (southern Italy). Rock strata (mainly)interbedded with clayey marls, clays and silty-clays outcrop in this area. Due to the intense strain history, thesesuccessions are found to be from stratified to deeply fractured, up to be disrupted and floating as blocks in aclayey matrix. In turn, the clay units are laminated to intensely fissured and characterised by very poor mechanicalproperties (Santaloia et al., 2012).The statistical analyses deal with data coming from published databases, integrated by public and privatedocuments, referring to a wide time span. Climate data records from 1877 to 2008 were elaborated, in particularthe data coming from sixteen rainfall gauges, ten of which were also thermometric. Moreover, some monthlyindices of rainfall, wet days, rainfall intensity, temperature, and landslide occurrence were introduced to simplifythe analysis of parameters, characterised by spatial and temporal variability. The population records are from the19th century up to now while the time period of reference for the land use data is from 1930 up to now.As concerns the landslide events, they were collected from 1918 to 2006. The main source of these records is theAVI database, an existing Italian database that collects data about damaging floods and landslides from 1918 to1996. This dataset was integrated up to 2006 by consulting newspapers, scientific publications, technical reports,written by the researchers of the CNR-IRPI for the Civil Protection, and also documents belonging to a researchproject (PS_119; Cotecchia et al. 2010). According to the landslide data collected, the landslide events resulted tobe 175 in the study area.The trend analyses show that the landslide occurrence was increased with the time, despite of the rainfall andtemperature data are not prone to landsliding. As a matter of fact, the trend of both the monthly rainfall andthe rainfall intensity decreases, and the temperature and the wet days show a positive trend during the period ofreference. The trend of the short-duration rainfall results generally to decrease.Not existing an evident relationship between climate variability and the increase of landslide occurrence, someother factors should be considered, as, for instance, the poor mechanical soil properties, the role of anthropogenicmodifications and the mismanagement of risk-prone areas. In this regards, the preliminary results obtainedfrom the data analyses

The main purpose of the research is to define management apporouches for a coastal karstic aquifer. The core of the tools uses numerical modelling, applied to groundwater resource of Salento (southern Italy) and criteria to reduce the quantitative and qualitative degradation risks. The computer codes selected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW and SEAWAT. The approach chosen was based on the concept of a equivalent homogeneous porous medium by which it is assumed that the real heterogeneous aquifer can be simulated as homogeneous porous media within cells or elements. The modelled aquifer portion extends for 2230 km2, and it was uniformly discretized into 97,200 cells, each one of 0.6 km2. Vertically, to allow a good lithological and hydrogeological discretization, the area was divided into 12 layers, from 214 to -350 m asl. Thickness and geometry of layers was defined on the basis of the aquifer conceptualisation based on the 3d knowledge of hydrogeological complexes.For the boundary conditions, inactive cells were used along the boundary with the rest of Murgia-Salento aquifer, as conceptual underground watershed due to the absence of flow. About the sea boundary was used CHD boundary cells (Constant Head Boundary). Additional boundary conditions were used for SEAWAT modelling, as initial concentration and constant concentration, in the latter case for cells shaping the coastline. A mean annual net rainfall (recharge) was calculated in each cell with a GIS elaboration, ranged from 68 to 343 mm, 173 mm an average. The recharge or infiltration was calculated using an infiltration coefficient (IC) (defined as infiltration/net rainfall ratio) for each hydrogeological complex, assuming values equal to 1 inside endorheic areas. The mean annual recharge was equal to 150 mm. The model was implemented using MODFLOW and SEAWAT codes in steady-state conditions to obtain a starting point for following transient scenarios, using piezometric data of thirties as in that period the discharge level was negligeable. The model was calibrated through the use of PEST (Non-Linear Parameter Estimation) code, a standard in the geo-environmental modelling. The calibration was realised using data of 17 selected wells. The results of calibration can be summarised considering these control parameters: the correlation coefficient, equal to 0.92, the standard deviation, equal to 0.7, the mean square error, equal about to 0.65, and the absolute mean residue (RMS), equal to 12%. The result emphasize the intrusion phenomena of seawater into aquifer with a important reduction of the quality of water and shown the importance of define management policies of groundwater extraction.

Occorrenza delle frane e ruolo del clima nel corso del XX secolo: gli studi per la Calabria e la Puglia

A methodological approach based on analysing landslides that occurred over a long period and climatic data characterizing that period is presented. The method investigates whether there are any effects of climate on landslide triggering. The approach has been tested in Calabria (Italy). Both landslide and climatic data have been obtained from available databases that have been expanded. Landslide data came from historical archives and newspapers, whereas the climatic analysis is based on daily and monthly series of rainfall and temperature. The method simplifies the comparative analysis of several time series by defining some indices (the monthly, bi-monthly ... m-monthly indices of precipitation, temperature, wet days and precipitation, and the monthly landslide number) that can be used to study phenomena, such as landslides, that are characterized by spatial and temporal variability. For Calabria, the number of landslides is correlated to monthly precipitation, wet days and precipitation intensity. Thus, landslide occurrence could be roughly forecast using these climatic data. Despite the favourable climatic trend, landslides are not decreasing because the recent utilization of landslide-prone areas increases the vulnerability.

All natural waters contain dissolved minerals from interactions with atmospheric and soil gases, mixing with other solutions, and/or interactions with the biosphere and lithosphere. In many cases, these processes result in natural waters containing solute or salinity above concentrations recommended for a specified use, which creates significant social and economic problems.Groundwater salinisation can be caused by natural phenomena and anthropogenic activities. For the former case, we can distinguish terrestrial and marine phenomena. Approximately 16% of the total area of continental earth is potentially involved in groundwater salinisation. Seawater intrusion can be considered to be the primary phenomenon to be studied in terms of groundwater salinisation.Three schematic approaches to the protection of groundwater via salinisation mitigation and/or groundwater salinity improvement are described based on the classifications of the primary salinisation sources and focusing on the effect of seawater intrusion. The complexity of these approaches generally increases due to difficulties caused by groundwater quality and quantity degradation and increased demand for quality water. In order from the lowest to the highest complexity, these approaches are the engineering approach, the discharge management approach, and the water and land management approach. The engineering approach is realised on the local or detailed scale with the purpose of controlling the salinisation, optimising the well discharge with specific technical solutions and/or completing works to improve the quality and/or quantity of the discharged fresh groundwater. The discharge management approach encompasses at least an entire coastal aquifer and defines rules concerning groundwater utilisation and well discharge. The water and land management approach should be applied on the regional scale. Briefly, this approach becomes necessary when one or more need creates an overall framework of high-quality water scarcity. These conditions, sometimes combined with an awareness of negative environmental effects, force people to accept new water saving practices and land use modifications. As the natural effects of salinisation can be enhanced by a multiplicity of human actions, the discharge management approach and the water and land management approach should generally be applied by water authorities or institutional and governmental organisations that are responsible for groundwater quality and availability.The practical study of Apulian karstic coastal aquifers is discussed in detail. Previously experienced management difficulties are described, as well as a proposed multi-methodological approach based on monitoring networks, the spatiotemporal analysis of groundwater quality changes, and multiparameter well logging. The core of this approach is the definition of the salinity threshold value between pure fresh groundwater and any fresh and saline groundwater mixture. The basic or si

Natural waters contain dissolved minerals from interactions with atmospheric and soil gases, mixing with other solutions, and/or interactions with the biosphere and lithosphere. In many cases, these processes result in natural waters containing solute or salinity above concentrations recommended for a specified use, which creates significant social and economic problems. Groundwater salinisation can be caused by natural phenomena and anthropogenic activities. For the first case, we can distinguish terrestrial and marine phenomena. Approximately 16% of the total area of continental earth is potentially involved in groundwater salinisation. Seawater intrusion can be considered to be the primary phenomenon for study in terms of groundwater salinisation. There are different measures, actions and practices for managing groundwater when the natural resource is exposed to salinisation. Some of these measures have a mitigation objective. Other measures have a more adaptive approach and accept the high groundwater salinity but adjusting the groundwater use so that it is not harmful. On the basis of worldwide experiences, three different approaches to the protection of groundwater via salinisation mitigation and/or groundwater salinity improvement can be recognised considering the classifications of the salinisation sources and focusing on the effect of seawater intrusion. The paper describes approaches. The complexity of these approaches generally increases due to difficulties caused by groundwater quality and quantity degradation and increased demand for quality water. Moving from the lowest to the highest complexity, these approaches are the engineering approach, the discharge management approach, and the water and land management approach. The engineering approach is realised on the local scale with the purpose of controlling the salinisation, optimising the well discharge with specific technical solutions and/or completing works to improve the quality and/or quantity of the discharged fresh groundwater. The discharge management approach includes a coastal aquifer and defines rules concerning groundwater utilisation and well discharge. The water and land management approach should be applied on the regional scale. This approach becomes necessary when one or more need creates an overall framework of high-quality water scarcity. These conditions, sometimes combined with an awareness of negative environmental effects, force people to accept new water saving practices and land use modifications. As the natural effects of salinisation can be enhanced by a multiplicity of human actions, the discharge management approach and the water and land management approach should generally be applied by water authorities or institutional and governmental organisations that are responsible for groundwater quality and availability.

Processi idrogeologici, dinamica del suolo e variazioni relative del livello del mare (il ruolo delle acque sotterranee).

The variability of precipitation and temperature, the combined effect of which determines a decreasing trend of recharge, is critic for groundwater resources due to the overlapping with the increasing exploitation. In Campania, from the eighties to 2008 precipitation has decreased, not uniformly in the whole region; now the trend seems increasing, but this trend is highly influenced by the period 2008-2011, very rainy. In Apulia, the decreasing trend of rainfall is notable after 1980: the droughts of 1988-92 and 1999-2001 appear to be exceptional. The Apulian piezometric trend of the last 40 years highlights the dramatic decrease of groundwater availability. This remarkable lowering defines a widespread quantity degradation. The situation severity of groundwater resources is worsened by the effects on the quality of groundwater resources due to the salinization of the wide coastal aquifers of the whole Southern Italy.

In karstic areas cases floods are rare, short, and sudden but the effects are often very dramatic. Flash floods (local floods of great volume and short duration, defined by the USA National Weather Service as floods caused by heavy rainfall in a short period of time, generally less than 6 hours) are extremely dangerous. Recent years have seen several flood-related casualties in Italy, in 2003, 2005 (when the last catastrophic flood happened in the karstic area of Bari), and 2007. Flash flood warnings are intrinsically difficult due to the short time available to warn people living next to the river. Our goal in this study was to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between flood events in karstic areas, in terms of recurrence, exceptionality and/or intensity, anthropogenic effects, mainly in terms of population number variations, and damages. Some authors have shown that urbanisation, land use changes, and hydraulics works must be taken into account to really understand the effects of past flood events. A comparative analysis of these data can thus allow us to understand if the trend of flood damage is steady or increasing and to determine whether it is affected by the growing density of population and facilities in flood-prone areas.The approach was based on three types of analyses: the historical analysis, based on historical data, the hydrological and the geomorphological analysis, both based on recent monitored or measured data. The historical analysis was focused on identifying and comparing two kinds of data: the series of past flood events over a period sufficiently wide to define the flood recurrence period and the main steps of anthropogenic development, called the anthropogenic role. This role was expressed using the population number and needs and considering the facilities in flood-prone areas. The hydro-geomorphological analyses were based on two types of data. Long time series of the annual maximum rainfalls of short duration were used to assess the return period of high intensity rainfall that caused studied flood event(s) for which rainfall measurements were available. The geomorphological analysis considered rainfall, hydrogeological characteristics of outcropping rocks and soils, and geomorphological data on the drainage basin to calculate net rainfall and peak flow characteristics. The historical analysis of floods and damages highlighted four flood periods, distinguished on the basis of the recurrence period and the level of damages. The hydro-geomorphological analyses showed the peculiarities of the 2005 flood event. The maximum rainfall return period for the 2005 event was due to exceptional three-hour cumulative rainfall. The study case was a sub-catchment where very high rainfall intensities were observed. The rainfall return period was found to be roughly in the range of 50-100 years, considering a cumulative rainfall duration (3-hour) about equal to the concentration time. This study shows that main modif

In Italy, rainfall-induced slope failures occur every year, claiming lives and causingsevere economic damage. We have designed and implemented a landslide warning system, named SANF(an acronym for national early warning system for rainfall-induced landslides), to forecast the possibleoccurrence of rainfall-induced landslides in Italy. The system is based on: (i) rainfall thresholds for pos-sible landslide occurrence, (ii) sub-hourly rainfall measurements obtained by a national network of 1950rain gauges, and (iii) quantitative rainfall forecasts. Twice a day, the system compares the measured andthe forecasted rainfall amounts against pre-defined ID thresholds, and assigns to each rain gauge a prob-ability of landslide occurrence. This information is used to prepare synoptic-scale maps showing whererainfall-induced landslides are expected in the next 24 hours.

The coastal carbonate Apulian aquifers, located in southern Italy, feed numerous coastal cold springs and constitute the main local source of high quality water. The group of Santa Cesarea springs constitutes the unique occurrence of thermal groundwater outflow, observed in partially submerged coastal caves. The spring water is rich of hydrogen sulfide; temperature ranges from 25 to 33 C°. For their properties, spring waters are used for spa activities from several decades. Hydrogeological spring conceptualisations proposed up now were not able to justify water geochemical peculiarities or were not completely confirmed up now. To reduce these uncertainties, a complex hydrogeological survey has been defined. Geological and structural surveys, chemical and isotopic groundwater analyses, spring and well discharge measurements, well loggings, multi-parameters spring automatized measurements, and cave explorations are ongoing. All available data have been used to improve the knowledge of groundwater flow system, including the valuable deep aquifer, the origin of the thermal waters, and to investigate the possibility of using low-enthalpy geothermal fluids to fulfil the thermal needs of the town of Santa Cesarea Terme.

The coastal carbonate Apulian aquifers, located in southern Italy, feed numerous coastal cold springs and constitute the main local source of high quality water. The group of Santa Cesarea springs constitutes the unique occurrence of thermal groundwater outflow, observed in partially submerged coastal caves. The spring water is rich of hydrogen sulfide; temperature ranges from 25 to 33 C°. For their properties, spring waters are used for spa activities from several decades. Hydrogeological spring conceptualisations proposed up now were not able to justify water geochemical peculiarities or were not completely confirmed up now. To reduce these uncertainties, a complex hydrogeological survey has been defined. Geological and structural surveys, chemical and isotopic groundwater analyses, spring and well discharge measurements, well loggings, multi-parameters spring automatized measurements, and cave explorations are ongoing. All available data have been used to improve the knowledge of groundwater flow system, including the valuable deep aquifer, the origin of the thermal waters, and to investigate the possibility of using low-enthalpy geothermal fluids to fulfil the thermal needs of the town of Santa Cesarea Terme.

In this research, univariate and bivariate statistical methods were applied to rainfall, river and piezometric level datasets belonging to 24-year time series (1986-2009). These methods, which often are used to understand the effects of precipitation on rivers and karstic springs discharge, have been used to assess piezometric level response to rainfall and river level fluctuations in a porous aquifer. A rain gauge, a river level gauge and three wells, located in Central Italy along the lower Pescara River valley in correspondence of its important alluvial aquifer, provided the data. Statistical analysis has been used within a known hydrogeological framework, which has been refined by mean of a photo-interpretation and a GPS survey. Water-groundwater relationships were identified following the autocorrelation and cross-correlation analyses. Spectral analysis and mono-fractal features of time series were assessed to provide information on multi-year variability, data distributions, their fractal dimension and the distribution return time within the historical time series. The statistical-mathematical results were interpreted through fieldwork that identified distinct groundwater flowpaths within the aquifer and enabled the implementation of a conceptual model, improving the knowledge on water resources management tools.

The statistical and hydrogeological analysis of the relationships between rainfall, river and piezometric level historical data can be useful to characterize the aquifers and to manage the groundwater resources. For this purpose measurements acquired every three days, relative to 1986-2009 period, concerning the Pescara river alluvial plain (Fig.1), were analyzed with several statistical methods. The alluvial bodies of the Pescara river is mainly silty-sandy. The plain aquifer is supported by Plio-Pleistocenic clayey deposits. The three wells (Fig. 2) are located in the medium-low alluvial plain. Autocorrelation and spectral univariate analysis, cross-correlation and bivariate spectral analysis have been implemented with the purpose to evaluate the memory effect, the delay of the piezometric level response to rainfall and river head/discharge impulse, and the periodical components of the time series (Mangin, 1984; Larocque et al., 1998; Polemio and Dragone, 1999).

Hypogenic caves, developed by sulphuric acid speleogenesis, are known all over the world among which the Santa Cesarea Terme caves have been included. They are four submerged caves, located along a coastal carbonate sector in Southern Italy and hosting the outflow of coastal springs of thermal mixed waters (from 21 to 33 °C). These waters derive from the mixing of three water end members: the fresh pure groundwater of a wide karstic aquifer, the deep sulphur thermal water and the seawater. This cave system represents an almost unique case of hypogenic sea caves in carbonate environment. The thermal mixed waters have a different effect on the surrounding rocks of the caves, influencing the sulphuric acid speleogenetic process within the whole cave system. To understand the complex and overlapping natural processes acting on the developmentof these coastal caves, a multidisciplinary study has been carried out. This study has integrated all the data resulting from different methods and technologies, merging morphology, structural geology, hydrogeology, hydrogeochemistry and mineralogy. This multidisciplinary study has allowed to define the main geochemical processes acting within these caves, including the cave development and the formation of the mineral concretions. After the introduction of H2S in the thermal waters, formed by the reduction of sulphates in the sedimentary deposits crossed at depth in the offshore, the oxidation occurs within the caves, producing sulphuric acid. Favoured by upwelling deep-seated thermal flows, this acid dissolves the limestone, with condensation corrosion process that involve replacement of limestone rock with gypsum. This process has resulted to be more active and remarkable within the Gattulla Cave, one of the Santa Cesarea Terme sea caves.

The water resource management needs a detailed hydrogeological framework definition, in order to explain the relationships between groundwater and both rainfall and riverine recharge influencing its hydrodynamic.In this research, univariate and bivariate statistical methods have been applied on rainfall, river and piezometric level data, which are generally used to understand the precipitation inflow effect on rivers and springs discharge in karst aquifers. On the other hand, hydraulic head response in porous aquifer are still under study to date.For this reason, long time series (24 years) of rainfall, river and piezometric level data have been analysed. These data have been collected since 1986 in a rain gauge, a hydrometer and in 3 wells, all located along low Pescara river valley (Abruzzo, Italy) where an important alluvial aquifer is present.To better understand the hydraulic conditions and to make statistical results coherent, photo-interpretation analyses and GPS surveys have been made.Based on this information, Auto-Correlation Function has allowed the evaluation of "memory effect" in each considered time series, that represents a self-coherency indicator. This results higher in both wells and river level than in rainfall. The interdependency between different hydrological parameters, that has been found by mean of Cross-Correlation Function (CCF), highlights a strong groundwater/surface water relationship between Pescara river and 2 of the wells, while the other shows a clear correlation with local rainfall. The CCF has been applied to residual data, after seasonal cycle and trend removal. This analysis underlines in one of the measured wells a strong pressure transfer from river to groundwater during flooding events.At last, univariate (Fast Fourier Transform) and bivariate (Cross-Amplitude Function) spectral analyses indicate a predominant annual cycle (12 months), linked to seasonal fluctuation, and multi-year cycles (72 and 144 months), related with climatic factors.

The aim of this paper is to present the modeling of a coastal porous aquifer located in the plain of Sibari (Southern Italy) to establish the effect of seawater intrusion since the well discharge was negligible (natural conditions), to current overexploitation. Qualitative and quantitative groundwater trends from 1930 to 2000 were so defined. This temporal evolution of groundwater resource will be used for forecasting purpose and for evaluate new management tools for a sustainable use of water resource. Study area is about 365 km2 for a coastline of about 35 km. The area can be conceptualized into three hydrogeological complexes (from the top): Sand and Clay, Clay and Silt, Sand and Conglomerate, this last constituting the deep confined aquifer, the bottom of which is not well-defined. Shallow aquifer is predominantly fed by direct rainwater infiltration. Deep aquifer is fed by outflows of the mountainous aquifers as the case of limestone aquifer of Pollino Mount and of shallow granitic aquifer of the Sila massif. The computer codes selected for numerical groundwater modelling were MODFLOW and SEAWAT. Model was calibrated with PEST code with a correlation coefficient equal to 0,90. The water balance of both aquifers was calculated. A relevant decrease of piezometric surface and increasing effects of seawater intrusion were observed in the shallow aquifer. Low modification of piezometric levels and salinity were observed in the deep aquifer. These preliminary results and next result scenarios will be used together with on-going survey data to assess trend of future groundwater availability and quality.

The Mar Piccolo (literally "narrow sea"), a sea internal basin which is part of the Taranto Gulf, located along the Ionian coast in southern Italy (Apulia region), represents both a peculiar and sensitive environmental area and a national environmental and social emergency due to the level of sea water pollution due to the pollutants coming from the close industrial area of Taranto.The area, located between the southern part of the Murgia plateau and the Ionian sea, is geologically characterized by a sequence of Mesozoic limestone (the Apulian carbonate platform) constituting the foreland of the southern Apennines chain. The Mesozoic sequence is intensely fissured and karstified, and forms an important groundwater reservoir.The aquifer occurring in the carbonate sequence of the Murgia plateau feeds numerous coastal springs and constitute the main local source of pure fresh groundwater. Galeso, Battentieri and Riso are the main subaerial springs located along the coast of Mar Piccolo, not far from the town of Taranto. This area is also characterized by several submarine springs, locally called "Citri".Submarine freshwater discharge plays an important, though not well quantified, role in the hydrogeological equilibrium of the system, but also the source of the spreading of many pollutants in the Mar Piccolo area due to the close presence of one of the largest European steel mill together a number of hazardous industrial activities of other types.The paper describes the efforts and the preliminary results to define a detailed conceptualisation of the aquifer as main support to characterise the hydrological balance of the internal sea and the quality of sea water and the effect on of the ecological equilibrium of the coastal environment.

The Cesine Wetland, located along the Adriatic coast, was recognized as a Wetland of International Interest and a National Natural Park. Managed by the "WorldWide Fund for nature" (WWF), it is considered a groundwater dependent ecosystem which is affected by seawater intrusion. The site was selected to test the environmental compatibility of a low-enthalpy geothermal power plant (closed loop) operating in the aquifer saturated portion with purpose to improving the visitor centre. For this purpose, the long-lasting thermal impact on groundwater was assessed using a multi-methodological approach. The complex aquifer system was carefully studied with geological, hydrogeological and geochemical surveys, including chemical and isotopic laboratory analyses of surface water, groundwater and seawater. The isotopes 18O, D, 11B, and 3H were useful to clarify the recharge contribution, the water mixing and the water age. All information was used to improve the conceptualization of the water system, including aquifers and the boundary conditions for a density driven numerical groundwater model. The purpose was to forecast anthropogenic thermal groundwater variations up to 10 years of plant working before the plant realization and to validate the solution after some working years. All results show the environmental compatibility notwithstanding the peculiar ecological environment.

The Cesine Wetland represents one of the most valuable wetlands of Apulia. It is located in Salento, along the Adriatic coast, not far from Lecce. It was recognized as "wetland of international interest"; it became "state natural reserve" and since 1980 it is managed by the "World Wide Fund for nature" (WWF). The protected area, 620 hectares wide, is shaped as a narrow and elongated strip that follows the coastline. It is crossed by numerous artificial channels, some of which represents the inland boundary. The core of the reserve, the eastern sector, includes the brackish water marshes, wooded areas and those of the Mediterranean marquis that give hospitality to the major habitats of community interest. The environmental peculiarities of the Cesine Wetland are due to a complex hydrogeological pattern, the high contribution of groundwater outflow, and to a peculiar dynamic equilibrium with sea, also due to the role of the wide coastal aquifer of Salento. The western part hosts the reclaim activities, where the ancient rural building "Masseria Cesine", used as the wetland visit center. This visit center site was selected for the construction of a low-enthalpy geothermal power plant as part of a pilot project funded by the EU IPA Legend 2007-2013 Adriatic. The pilot plant is a case perhaps unique in a protected wetland, made to check the replicability of geothermal air conditioning systems in environmentally valuable contexts. It was designed and realized for the monitoring of the environmental effects of heat exchange. The geothermal heat pump system consists of two double U-shaped geothermal probes, 200 meters deep, intercepting three aquifers separated by aquiclude levels with different hydraulic and hydrogeochemical characteristics. Piezometric boreholes were realized at different depths and different distances from the system, allowing the estimation of several parameters or measurements of physical variables, including temperature. Hydrogeological conceptualization and periodic measurements support the implementation of a numerical model, designed for future assessment of environmental effects. The heat transport numerical model was developed in FEFLOW, in order to estimate the extension of the thermal plume generated within the aquifers after a long period of heat exchange. The numerical model was developed assigning different values of hydraulic, thermal and geochemical properties to each layer, considering in particular saline concentration of groundwater. The model parameters definition was based on thermal properties of ground samples, Ground Response Test (GRT), groundwater level measurements, temperature logs and groundwater surveys. Initial simulation results contributed to the evaluation of geothermal plant influence on groundwater, a fundamental resource ensuring the existence of wetlands and autochthonous plant and animal species, and confirmed the sustainability characteristics of the heat pump system.

The aim of the paper is to describe the results of the application of a methodology based both on the use of time series analyses and of geospatial analyses of monthly climatic data (rainfall, wet days, rainfall intensity, and temperature), annual maximum of short-duration rainfall (from 1 hour to 5 days), and historical modification of land use in order to characterise the effects of these variables on the occurrence of landslide events. The methodology was applied in the Subappennino Dauno area, located on the eastern margin of the Southern Apennines thrust belt (Southern Italy).Despite the decreasing trend of rainfall and rainfall intensity and the increasing trend of temperatures and wet days, there is an increasing trend of landslide occurrence, highlighting the negative effect of anthropogenic modifications and the mismanagement of landslide-prone areas.This hypothesis was confirmed by comparing the distribution of landslides with the land use variations data (especially urban areas and wooded areas) collected from 1930 to 2006.

In this paper, we present a methodological approach based on a comparative analysis of floods that occurred in a wide region over a long period and the climatic data characterising the same period, focusing on the climate trend. The method simplifies the comparative analysis of several time series by defining some indexes (e.g., the monthly, bi-monthly, and … m-monthly indexes of precipitation, temperature, wet days and precipitation intensity and the monthly flood number) that can be used to study phenomena such as floods that are characterised by spatial and temporal variability. The analysis was used to investigate the potential effect of climate variation on the damaging floods trend. The approach was tested for the region of Calabria (Italy) using historical flood and climatic data from 1880 to 2007. The results showed that the number of floods was correlated with the monthly indexes of precipitation, wet days, and daily precipitation intensity. The following trends were recognised: decreasing precipitation and wet days, almost constant precipitation intensity, increasing temperature, and linearly increasing floods. A second-order polynomial trend analysis showed a slight decrease in floods since the seventies, which might be explained by the favourable climatic conditions during the period and/or the effect of increasing awareness of flood vulnerability.

The Ugento Wetland, recognized as a Site of Community Importance (SCI, European Directive 92/43/CEE) from 2005, is a "Regional natural littoral Park" from 2007, located along the Ionian coast, in south-eastern part of Salento (Apulia region). The environmental peculiarities of the Ugento Wetland are due to a complex hydrogeological pattern, the high contribution of groundwater outflow, and to a peculiar dynamic equilibrium with sea, also due to the role of the wide coastal aquifer of Salento. The main objectives of the present research are the definition of the hydrogeological conceptualisation to create a basic knowledge of the physical environment, to be used as a basis for the design of effective management policies of water resources to safeguard the ecological and environmental equilibria, considering the relevant impact of anthropogenic activities. In this area, the human pressure on water resources was detected in terms of surface water pollution, probably due to illegal dumps and the use of fertilizers and nitrogen compound for agricultural purposes, which is the origin of an exponential growth of the floating macro-algae mass in basins. As a consequence, some event of eutrophication triggers the algal growth, the effect of which is the sharp reduction, almost to zero, of the surface water velocity, up to, in some cases, to a widespread fish mortality. Apart from water pollution effects, during the dry season, due to the increase of groundwater discharge, the sharp piezometric decline improves the effects of seawater intrusion on groundwater. A geological and hydrogeological survey and study were realised and merged with the characterisation of the land use modifications back to the fifties. The attention was focused on the analysis of the complex hydrogeological characteristics, which is due to the overlapped effects of shallow and deep aquifers and of their outflow along the coastal area. The focal role of the shallow aquifer, which is predominant and extremely importance for the hydrological balance and so for the ecological equilibria, a specific monitoring groundwater network of quantitative and qualitative parameters was implemented. The merging of hydrogeological factors and anthropogenic modifications was discussed using indicators. Two main macro-indicators, water and soil, were selected. The critical issues related to the management of human activities potentially dangerous for the wetland environment, was considered with the definition of guidelines for their mitigation, based on the discussion of the indicators.

The coastal karst aquifers are known to be highly vulnerable to anthropogenic and natural changes, and in particular to the overexploitation of groundwater resources. They are of strategic relevance, especially for the coastal areas of Asia, USA and Mediterranean Countries, where the urbanization and human activities are highly developed. In these coastal zones, densely populated areas and intensive agricultural activities always demand greater quantities of water to support their economy. Climate change may particularly aggravate these requirements, especially in the Mediterranean areas, due to the combined effects of reduced recharge and consequent increase of discharge. In addition, the seawater intrusion processes involve a deterioration of the water resource quality. These problems highlight the importance of a serious reflection on water resources management to ensure agricultural sustainability and good fresh water supply of the coastal areas. In Italy, Apulia, with its coastline extending over 800 km, is the region with the largest coastal karst aquifer. The predominant karst Apulian features make the region extremely poor of surface water resources but, at the same time, rich of groundwater resources, which allow the improvement of agricultural activitiejknbews in the whole region. In particular we focus on a coastal groundwater system that is already threatened by a high seawater level: Salento Peninsula. The aim of this paper is to simulate the effects of climate change on recharge, sea level rise and increase of crop water demand, using density-depending numerical codes MODFLOW and SEAWAT. A large-scale approach was chosen to assess the efficacy of modelling as a new management tool, and to develop predictive scenarios taking into account the irrigation needs.

This note aims to define the sustainability of groundwater exploitation for agriculture in the case of a wide coastal karstic aquifer. Numerical modelling was used as a tool to point out the criteria to reduce the quantitative and qualitative groundwater degradation risks. The real heterogeneous aquifer has been simulated as an equivalent homogeneous porous media within cells or elements. Its surface extension is 2230 km2 and it was uniformly discretized into 97,200 cells, each one with an area of 0.6 km2. Vertically, to allow a good lithological and hydrogeological discretization, the area was divided into 12 layers, from 214 to -350 m asl. Inactive cells were used along the boundary with the confining Murgia-Salento aquifer, as conceptual underground watershed due to the absence of flow. A CHD (Constant Head Boundary) was used along the sea boundary, while additional boundary conditions were used for salinity modelling. The results of calibration can be summarised considering the correlation coefficient, equal to 0.92, the standard deviation, equal to 0.7, the mean square error, equal to 0.65 and the absolute mean residue (RMS), equal to 12%. The water budget of the study area was calculated in each cell using a GIS elaboration. Rainfall and temperature monthly data coming from 16 gauges were considered since 1915 until 2000, considering an infiltration coefficient (IC) for each hydrogeological complex. The period since 1925 until 1975 was selected to assess the water balance for the steady state conditions, thus avoiding the trend effect of climate change, particularly relevant in the area starting from the eighties. After implementing and calibrating the steady-state scenario two transient validate-scenarios were implemented for two decades: eighties and nineties. In these decades the discharge increase for drinking and irrigation purposes and the recharge decrease due to climate variations were considered. The salinity and piezometric trends were thus obtained. As most of the global climate change models predict decreasing precipitation and increasing temperatures and hence evapotraspiration in the Mediterranean region, three forecasts piezometric scenarios, 2000-2020, 2020-2040 and 2020-2060 were subsequently implemented. On this basis, the quantity degradation of groundwater resources was assessed, showing a non-sustainability of the current trend of groundwater exploitation.

This study analyses monthly climatic data (rainfall, wet days, rainfall intensity, and temperature) and the annual maximum of short-duration rainfall (from 1 hour to 5 days) to characterise climate variations, focusing on rainfall, and their effects on trends in damaging hydrogeological events (DHEs), defined as the occurrence of one or more simultaneous landslides and/or floods causing extensive damage.The methodology used is correlation, cross-correlation, trend analyses, and monthly indices. The monthly indices of rainfall, wet days, rainfall intensity, temperature, and flood and landslide occurrence were introduced to simplify the analysis of parameters characterised by spatial and temporal variability.The approach was applied to a region of southern Italy (Apulia). The data were collected from two databases: the damaging hydrogeological events database (1186 landslides and floods since 1918) and the climate database (from 1877; short-duration rainfall from 1921).A statistically significant decreasing trend in rainfall intensity and an increasing trend in temperature, landslides, and DHEs were observed. A generalised decreasing trend in short-duration rainfall was also observed. The main exception involved a very small number of time series with annual maxima as long as 6 hours, for which an increasing trend prevailed. The results concerning the trends of selected climate and short-duration rainfall characteristics did not justify the increasing trend in DHEs. Hypotheses justifying this increasing DHE trend are proposed.This article identifies the advantages of a simplified approach to reduce the intrinsic complexities of the spatial-temporal analysis of climate variability. This approach permits the simultaneous analysis of changes in flood and landslide occurrence.

Il Progetto GarganoLab ovvero "Sistema informativo integrato per la gestione del territorio, il monitoraggio ambientale ed allerta di emergenza", finanziato dalla Regione Puglia grazie alle misure "Living Labs", è stato concepito dal consorzio tra le imprese Staer Sistemi, W-Enterprise e Gemict a supporto della domanda di innovazione tecnologica del Consorzio di Bonifica Montana del Gargano (CBMG), al fine di perseguire la riduzione dei rischi idrogeologici e l'ottimale gestione delle opere di mitigazione. La nota descrive il contributo offerto in particolare dal partner di progetto, il Laboratorio di Idrologia del CNR-IRPI. Il progetto ha perseguito la mitigazione dei rischi naturali, dovuti a frane e, soprattutto, piene, e gli effetti della siccità nel territorio del Consorzio di Bonifica Montana del Gargano, con maggiore dettaglio nelle zone più esposte, come il bacino idrografico Molinella di Vieste, drammaticamente interessato anche dal più recente evento alluvionale, occorso nel Gargano dall'1 al 6/9/2014. Il Gargano è un territorio peculiare, spiccatamente montano e carsico; per la forte vicinanza al mare è colpito da fenomeni meteorici particolarmente violenti e repentini; con tali peculiarità il deflusso fluviale è di per se raro, breve e quasi sempre fulmineamente catastrofico. Il contributo del CNR-IRPI è consistito in diverse attività nel seguito brevemente descritte. 1)Analisi statistica delle serie idrologiche e individuazione dei trend: è stato condotto lo studio statistico di tutte le serie storiche climatiche disponibili (dal 1918) per caratterizzare la siccità e l'eccezionalità degli eventi meteorici accaduti o attesi. Ricorrendo ai più opportuni indici statistici, ed in particolare all'indice SPI (Standardized Precipitation Index) maggiormente utilizzato a livello internazionale per descrivere gli eventi estremi della siccità mediante la quantificazione del deficit di precipitazione per diverse scale di tempi o durate, generalmente espressi in mesi, si è così dotato il progetto di uno strumento utile a individuare i trend statistici della siccità per diverse durate temporali, di interesse per gli aspetti meteorologici, idrologici e agricoli. Lo strumento è attivo a ritroso, per molte decine di anni, e si aggiorna in tempo reale, man mano che le misure climatiche si rendono disponibili. 2)Stima delle funzioni di distribuzione della probabilità: le serie dei massimi delle piogge cumulate da un'ora a 5 giorni sono state utilizzate per definire le funzioni di distribuzione della probabilità dei valori estremi a doppia componente (TCEV) a tutti di livelli di regionalizzazione. Tale approccio permette di compensare la limitata estensione del campionamento, ovvero della durata delle misure, limitata rispetto all'obiettivo di stimare tempi di ritorno molto più lunghi delle suddette durate, con le informazioni statisticamente rilevanti presenti nelle serie storiche della medesima regione, attualizzando e affinando i risultati del Proget

Il contributo si basa sull'analisi di diversi tipi di dati, elaborati fino a costituire serie storiche mensili inerenti il clima (pioggia, temperatura, giorni piovosi e intensità di pioggia) dal 1877 al 2008. Nonostante la tendenza al calo della piovosità e dell'intensità di pioggia e all'incremento della temperatura e dei giorni piovosi, si osserva la crescente ricorrenza di piene e frane, a conferma della crescente antropizzazione di aree a pericolosità idrogeologica. La discussione delle relazioni clima-frane ha evidenziato delle limitazioni ragionevolmente dovute al concentrarsi delle frane in parte del territorio e alla minore qualità del dato storico.