This study was designed to investigate the degree of aggressiveness of Fusarium graminearum sensu stricto isolates and its relationship with trichothecene production. In order to characterize Fusarium strains aggressiveness, disease severity was visually assessed as the percentage of spikelets bleached per ear. The severity ranged from a minimum of 27.19% seven days after inoculation to a maximum of 84.73% at the end of the experiment. At maturity the ears were harvested and threshed for grain weight determination. All treatments showed significant differences in kernel weight with respect to the control plants, with a yield reduction of 35–85% in comparison with the yield of the control. Grains infected by F. graminearum may contain significant levels of mycotoxins like trichothecenes. No correlation was found between aggressiveness and the toxins in the kernels at maturity, taking into consideration not only the quantity but also the type of toxin (nivalenol, deoxynivalenol or their acetylderivatives). Kernel weight reduction was a better estimator of the presence of deoxynivalenol in the kernels than the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) calculated with severity ratings. The amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technique was used to establish genetic relationships between 18 Argentinean isolates and eight reference strains of the Fusarium graminearum complex. All the isolates studied grouped with the two F. graminearum s. str. reference isolates, with a similarity coefficient greater than 75%. The other reference strains of the F. graminearum complex were clearly separated, with similarities ranging between 55 and 73%. The AFLP groups had no relationship with toxin accumulation on kernels or with the geographical origin of the isolates. Great heterogeneity was found in the AUDPC, yield reduction and toxin accumulation values across the regions.

Pink ear rot of maize caused by Fusarium verticillioides, Fusariumproliferatum and Fusariumgraminearum can lead to severe yield losses and contamination of grain with a range of mycotoxins. Maize stalks colonized by Fusarium spp. are the main primary inoculum source for Fusarium incited epidemics in maize or other susceptible crops grown in rotation.The colonization of individual maize stalks originating from fields in The Netherlands, Italy and Nigeria by Fusarium spp. was quantified using specific TaqMan-PCR assays. Highest values were found for F. graminearum and Fusariumavenaceum in Dutch samples, for F. graminearum and FUM producing species (F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum) in Italian samples and FUM producing Fusarium spp. in Nigerian samples. The increase in Fusarium spp. colonization under field conditions during a period of 3-6 months after harvest of the maize crops varied considerably between individual stalks. The fungal and bacterial diversity was analyzed for sub-sets of stalks with high versus low increase of Fusarium colonization. Bacterial taxonomic groups such as Bacillus, Curtobacterium, Erwinia, Flavobacterium, Novosphingobium, Pantoea, Sphingomonas, Rahnella and Staphylococcus and fungal taxonomic groups such as Acremomium sp., Cryptococcus flavescens, Cryptococcus zeae, Leptosphaeria sp. and Microdochium bolleyi were more abundant in the stalks with lower increase in pathogen colonization. Such fungal and bacterial groups associated with 'suppressive stalks' may be antagonistic to Fusarium spp. and a source of candidate strains for the selection of new biological control agents.

Mycotoxin risk in the grape product chain is primarily due to ochratoxin A (OTA) occurrence in wine and dried vine fruits. Aspergillus carbonarius and the A. niger group are the main agents of Aspergillus bunch rot of grape, and they, especially A. carbonarius, are responsible for OTA contamination worldwide. Fumonisin B2 (FB2) represents an additional potential mycotoxin risk in the grape-wine product chain and A. niger/A. awamori were recently reported as the FB2 producers in grapes. A deeper understanding of the species diversity of black Aspergilli, together with specific knowledge of their ecology and epidemiology, can help to predict their occurrence. From this perspective several studies have been done regarding prevention and control of black Aspergilli and reduction of mycotoxin risk at all stages, from vineyard management to wine-making procedures. In this review a comprehensive overview of all these aspects is presented.

Fusarium poae is one of the Fusarium species commonly detected in wheat kernels affected by Fusarium Head Blight. Fusarium poae produces a wide range of mycotoxins including nivalenol (NIV). The effect of temperature on colony growth and NIV production was investigated in vitro at 5-40 degrees C with 5 degrees C intervals. When the data were fit to a Beta equation (R-2 >= 0.97), the optimal temperature was estimated to be 24.7 degrees C for colony growth and 27.5 degrees C for NIV production. The effects of temperature on infection incidence, fungal biomass, and NIV contamination were investigated by inoculating potted durum wheat plants at full anthesis; inoculated heads were kept at 10-40 degrees C with 5 degrees C intervals for 3 days and then at ambient temperature until ripening. Temperature significantly affected the incidence of floret infection and fungal biomass (as indicated by DNA amount) in the affected heads but did not affect NIV content in the head tissue. Inoculation of potted plants with F. poae did not reduce yield. (c) 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The efficacy of agrochemical treatments, based on three different fungicides combined with an insecticide,was tested in southern Italy for two years on three maize hybrids to control Fusarium ear rotof maize and the accumulation in the maize kernels of the carcinogenic mycotoxins fumonisins. Insectdamage incidence and severity, disease incidence and severity, identification of Fusarium species andlevels of fumonisin contamination in kernels were determined. Field trials showed in both years thatnatural colonization of maize kernels by the fumonisin producing species Fusarium proliferatum and F.verticillioides (up to 81.5 and 26.5%, respectively) and total fumonisin contamination (up to 68.2gg-1)were highly severe. For all hybrids and in both years, the treatment with the insecticide applied alonereduced the insect damage severity consistently and the content of fumonisins in the kernel only in halfof the cases, whereas fungicide treatments applied in combination with the insecticide showed a furthersignificant reduction of fumonisin contamination in the three hybrids and in both years.

The Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC) is a group of mycotoxigenic fungi that are the primary cause of Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat worldwide. The distribution, frequency of occurrence, and genetic diversity of FGSC species in cereal crops in South America is not well understood compared to some regions of Asia, Europe and North America. Therefore, we examined the frequency and genetic diversity of a collection of 183 FGSC isolates recovered from wheat grown during multiple growing seasons and across a large area of eastern Argentina, a major wheat producing region in South America. Sequence analysis of the translation elongation factor 1-alpha and beta-tubulin genes as well as Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analyses indicated that all isolates were the FGSC species F. graminearum sensu stricto. AFLP analysis resolved at least 11 subgroups, and all the isolates represented different AFLP haplotypes. AFLP profile and geographic origin were not correlated. Previously obtained trichothecene production profiles of the isolates revealed that the 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol chemotype was slightly more frequent than the 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol chemotype among the isolates. These data extend the current understanding of FGSC diversity and provide further evidence that F. graminearum sensu stricto is the predominant cause of FHB in the temperate main wheat-growing area of Argentina. Moreover, two isolates of F. crookwellense and four of F. pseudograminearum were also recovered from wheat samples and sequenced. The results also suggest that, although F. graminearum sensu stricto was the only FGSC species recovered in this study, the high level of genetic diversity within this species should be considered in plant breeding efforts and development of other disease management strategies aimed at reducing FHB.

Fusarium graminearum is among the main causal agents of Fusarium head blight (FHB), or scab, of wheat and other cereals, caused by a complex of Fusarium species, worldwide. Besides causing economic losses in terms of crop yield and quality, F. graminearum poses a severe threat to animal and human health. Here, we present the first draft whole-genome sequence of the mycotoxigenic Fusarium graminearum strain ITEM 124, also providing useful information for comparative genomics studies.

Cereals represent the major staple food for many people at worldwide level.Among the diseases that affect these crops, the occurrence of Fusarium species isrelated to the highest risk for the consumers since many Fusarium can produce awide range of harmful mycotoxins that can be accumulated in the cereal kernels.In particular, Fusarium Head Blight of wheat and other minor cereals is caused by acomplex of species, each provided of specific mycotoxin profiles. Moreover, themain species can vary in the different geographic areas because they can beinfluenced from the changing environmental conditions. Therefore, a reliableidentification of the most occurring species is important for the correct evaluationof the potential toxicological risk of contaminated kernels. 320 samples of wheatand barley were collected in Austria (2011-2012), Germany (2012) and China(2013) and analyzed for the multi-mycotoxin by liquid chromatography-tandemmass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and related toxigenic fungi contamination. Amongthe Fusarium mycotoxins mainly detected in 100 wheat samples from China,enniatins (ENNs), deoxynivalenol (DON), its glucoside DON-3-glucoside (D3G), 3-acetyl- deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), nivalenol and, only in 6% ofsamples, fumonisins (FUMs) were identified, with a high number of other mycotoxinsoccurring at low concentrations detected. Also in Germany and Austria, the rangeof mycotoxins detected in wheat and barley was high, being beauvericin (BEA),ENNs, DON, D3G and ZEN the most detected mycotoxins. This wide contaminationby mycotoxins of the samples was also reflected in the wide variability of Fusariumspecies isolated and identified. Fungal strains were first identified based on theirmorphological features and therefore confirmed by sequencing calmodulin andelongation factor 1? genes. In wheat collected in China, F. graminearum sensustricto, F. verticillioides, and species of F. incarnatum/equiseti complex were themost frequently isolated. In Germany and Austria, in both barley and wheat, F.graminearum sensu stricto, F. poae, F. acuminatum and F. tricinctum were themost occurring species. Moreover, a population of strains phylogenetically equallydistant from F. acuminatum and F. tricinctum was also characterized from bothcrops, showing a high level of genetic diversity. However, more genetic analysesare needed to evaluate if this latest population is a new genetic entity to bedescribed within the genus Fusarium.

In a survey carried out on 87 rotted fig fruits samples collected in the Apulia region of Italy, the authors isolated 126 Fusarium strains identified as F. ramigenum (69 strains), F. solani (49), F. proliferatum (five) and three not identified. Investigation on the fertility of the strains belonging to F. proliferatum and F. ramigenum revealed that only strains of F. proliferatum were fertile. The identity of F. ramigenum strains was confirmed by sequencing a portion of the translation elongation factor-1 gene. When Fusarium species were analysed for their toxigenicity, 37/69 strains of F. ramigenum produced fusaric acid (FA) up to 525 mg kg-1; 30 strains produced beauvericin (BEA) up to 190 mg kg-1; 60 strains produced fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2) up to 1575 mg kg-1 of total FBs; and two strains produced fusaproliferin (FUP) up to 345 mg kg-1; all five strains of F. proliferatum produced FA at low levels; two strains produced BEA up to 205 mg kg-1; one strain produced FB1 and FB2, 1100 and 470 mg kg-1, respectively; and one strain produced FUP, 820 mg kg-1; F. solani (30 strains) produced FA, 13 strains up to 215 mg kg-1. Few fungal extracts showed high toxicity toward brine shrimp larvae and in some cases in relation to BEA and FA content. A pathogenic assay on fig fruits showed that all three species were pathogenic, with higher virulence of F. ramigenum. These data report for the first time the production of BEA and FB1/FB2 by F. ramigenum and show that it is a main agent of fig endosepsis in Apulia and can contribute to fumonisin contamination of fresh and dried figs.

Fusarium Head Blight (FHB) represents one of the most economically worldwidedevasting disease of of durum wheat, causing significant reduction of grain yieldand quality. FHB of wheat is caused by a complex of species belonging mostly toFusarium genus. Many of these species can produce a wide range of mycotoxinsthat can be accumulated in wheat kernels at maturity, among which thetrichotecene, strong protein inhibitors, are the most common. Moreover, eachspecies of Fusarium involved in the FHB is provided of its own specific profile. Thespecies can vary in the different geographical areas because they can beinfluenced from the changing environmental conditions. One-hundred-foursamples of durum wheat were collected in Italy in 2013 and 2014 and analyzed forthe occurrence of trichothecenes by Ultra-Performance LiquidChromatography/Photodiode-Array Detector and zearalenone (ZEA) by highperformanceliquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The Fusariumspecies isolated from the kernels were first identified based on their morphologicalfeatures and therefore confirmed by sequencing calmodulin and elongationfactor 1? genes. The Fusarium mycotoxin detection varied in 2013 compared to2014 and also according with geographical areas. Deoxynivalenol (DON) wasdetected at a relevant levels only in the samples collected in Central andNorthern Italy, with higher concentrations and incidence in 2014 compared 2013.On the other hand, the T-2 and HT-2 toxins and ZEA occurred at higher levels insamples collected in Southern Italy than in Central Italy and Northern Italy, and in2014 the level of contamination was higher than in 2013. These latter data are alsoreason of the highest concern since 18 out of 20 wheat samples in both 2013 and2014 (range, 100-335 and 155-486 ppb, respectively) were over the recommendedlimits suggested by the European Union for the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in thewheat kernels. The mycotoxin contamination that occurred in the kernels was alsoreflected in the spectrum of Fusarium species isolated and identified. Fusariumgraminearum sensu stricto was the most occurring species when the DONoccurred at high levels and F. langsethiae was the species isolated frequentlywhen T-2 and HT-2 toxins were detected. These data showed that a real mycotoxinrisk related to Fusarium mycotoxins does exist along the whole Italy, but they varyaccording with the geographical areas and year of sampling.

Grape berries attacked by Lobesia botrana larvae are more easily infected by Aspergillus section Nigri (black aspergilli) ochratoxigenic species. Two-year field trials were carried out in Apulia (Italy) to evaluate a bioinsecticide control strategy against L. botrana and the indirect effect on reducing ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination in vineyards. A commercial Bacillus thuringiensis formulate and an experimental Beauveria bassiana (ITEM-1559) formulate were tested in two vineyards cultivated with the same grape variety, Negroamaro, but with two different training systems (espalier and little-arbor techniques). In both years and training systems the treatments by B. bassiana ITEM-1559 significantly controlled L. botrana larvae attacks with effectiveness similar to B. thuringensis (more than 20%). A significant reduction of OTA concentrations (up to 80% compared to untreated controls) was observed only in the first year in both training systems, when the metereological parameters prior to harvest were more favorable to the insect attack. Results of field trials showed that B. bassiana ITEM-1559 is a valid bioinsecticide against L. botrana and that grape moth biocontrol is a strategy to reduce OTA contamination in vineyard in seasons with heavy natural infestation.

Wheat, the main source of carbohydrates worldwide, can be attacked by a wide number of phytopathogenic fungi, included Alternaria species. Alternaria species commonly occur on wheat worldwide and produce several mycotoxins such as tenuazonic acid (TA), alternariol (AOH), alternariol-monomethyl ether (AME), and altenuene (ALT), provided of haemato-toxic, genotoxic, and mutagenic activities. The contamination by Alternaria species of wheat kernels, collected in Tuscany, Italy, from 2013 to 2016, was evaluated. Alternaria contamination was detected in 93 out of 100 field samples, with values ranging between 1 and 73% (mean of 18%). Selected strains were genetically characterized by multi-locus gene sequencing approach through combined sequences of allergen alt1a, glyceraldeyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and translation elongation factor 1? genes. Two well defined groups were generated; namely sections Alternaria and Infectoriae. Representative strains were analyzed for mycotoxin production. A different mycotoxin profile between the sections was shown. Of the 54 strains analyzed for mycotoxins, all strains included in Section Alternaria produced AOH and AME, 40 strains (99%) produced TA, and 26 strains (63%) produced ALT. On the other hand, only a very low capability to produce both AOH and AME was recorded among the Section Infectoriae strains. These data show that a potential mycotoxin risk related to the consumption of Alternaria contaminated wheat is high.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important disease of wheat worldwide caused mainly by Fusarium graminearum (syn. Gibberella zeae). This fungus can be highly aggressive and can produce several mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON), a well known harmful metabolite for humans, animals, and plants. The fungus can survive overwinter on wheat residues and on the soil, and can usually attack the wheat plant at their point of flowering, being able to infect the heads and to contaminate the kernels at the maturity. Contaminated kernels can be sometimes used as seeds for the cultivation of the following year. Poor knowledge on the ability of the strains of F. graminearum occurring on wheat seeds to be transmitted to the plant and to contribute to the final DON contamination of kernels is available. Therefore, this study had the goals of evaluating: (a) the capability of F. graminearum causing FHB of wheat to be transmitted from the seeds or soil to the kernels at maturity and the progress of the fungus within the plant at different growth stages; (b) the levels of DON contamination in both plant tissues and kernels. The study has been carried out for two years in a climatic chamber. The F. gramineraum strain selected for the inoculation was followed within the plant by using Vegetative Compatibility technique, and quantified by Real-Time PCR. Chemical analyses of DON were carried out by using immunoaffinity cleanup and HPLC/UV/DAD. The study showed that F. graminearum originated from seeds or soil can grow systemically in the plant tissues, with the exception of kernels and heads. There seems to be a barrier that inhibits the colonization of the heads by the fungus. High levels of DON and F. graminearum were found in crowns, stems, and straw, whereas low levels of DON and no detectable levels of F. graminearum were found in both heads and kernels. Finally, in all parts of the plant (heads, crowns, and stems at milk and vitreous ripening stages, and straw at vitreous ripening), also the accumulation of significant quantities of DON-3-glucoside (DON-3G), a product of DON glycosylation, was detected, with decreasing levels in straw, crown, stems and kernels. The presence of DON and DON-3G in heads and kernels without the occurrence of F. graminearum may be explained by their water solubility that could facilitate their translocation from stem to heads and kernels. The presence of DON-3G at levels 23 times higher than DON in the heads at milk stage without the occurrence of F. graminearum may indicate that an active glycosylation of DON also occurs in the head tissues. Finally, the high levels of DON accumulated in straws are worrisome since they represent additional sources of mycotoxin for livestock. © 2014 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

The importance and widespread incidence of Fusarium poae as a natural contaminant of wheat in differentclimatic areas warrants investigation into the genetic diversity and toxin profile of a northern Italy population.Eighty-one strains of F. poae isolated from durum wheat kernels, identified by species-specific polymerase chainreaction and translation elongation factor-1 gene sequence analysis, were genetically characterized by theamplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technique and analysed by high-pressure liquid chromatographyfor their ability to produce the beauvericin (BEA) and trichothecene mycotoxins. A high level of variabilitywas observed by using AFLP analyses, with the lowest level of genetic similarity among the strains beingapproximately 61%. Most of the strains, 95%, produced BEA at52655 mg g1; 88% produced the trichothecenenivalenol at5865 mgg1 and 76% produced the trichothecene fusarenon-X at5167 mg g1. These data show thatF. poae can produce high amounts of BEA together with trichothecenes, and can represent a high potentialmycotoxin risk in Italy for wheat colonized by this species.