An energy consumption analysis comparing 12 management scenarios of durum wheat grown in southern Italy was carried out in order to identify the most energy efficient system with regard to productivity. The results showed that yield parameters were significantly affected by the tillage system and revealed that conservation tillage entailed the fewest field operations and lowest energy requirements with higher yield.Nitrogen rates had slight effects on yield parameters, whereas a linear relationship was found between increasing energy input and increasing nitrogen fertilizer. The highest proportion of energy input came from diesel fuel, followed by nitrogen fertilizer.Total input energy used per hectare increased with the increase in management intensity. However, per 1kg of grain, energy intensity was directly linked to grain yield. The lowest average of 1.8MJkg-1 was for conservation tillage, followed by intensive tillage with 2.9MJkg-1, whereas reduced tillage was the most energy intense with 3.1MJkg-1.Conservation tillage of durum wheat in southern Italy can be used to maintain or increase productivity with only a minimum energy input.

In order to quickly and efficiently evaluate the salt tolerance of alfalfa, salinity tests were conducted on Medicago sativa L. var. australis, var. icon, var. loi, and var. gea, under in vitro conditions. Pregerminated seeds of four varieties were subjected to five different NaCl concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 mM). The influence of saline stress was estimated on the basis of survival percentage, growth parameters, and electrolyte leakage. The seedlings surviving on the medium enriched with salt at the highest concentration were presumed to be tolerant and represented the mother plants for the production of in vitro clones. In the following step, the clones were evaluated in vitro to confirm the salt tolerance. The influence of mild salt stress (75 mM NaCl) on the growth parameters of selected clones was examined. At the end of this trial, the proline accumulation and sodium content in alfalfa shoots were also quantified. The results suggest an increased level of proline promotes salt tolerance. Medicago sativa L. var. icon is highly tolerant in comparison with the other varieties tested. In vitro selection of M. sativa L. varieties on salt-containing media allowed us to obtain clones with increased salinity tolerance.

Globe artichoke heads with tightened bracts, in early stage of development, were cultured on medium to produce secondary metabolites through in vitro callus induction. The culture medium, supplemented with 3.0% sucrose and 0.7% agar, was enriched with naftalenacetic acid (NAA), 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and gibberellic acid (GA3) at different concentrations. Explants were superficially disinfested by immersing them in 70% (v/v) ethanol for 2 minutes and then in 10% of 0.4% (w/v) NaOCl for 20 minutes or in 0.05% (w/v) mercuric chloride for 20 minutes. Subsequently all the explants were rinsed repeatedly in a solution of 50 mg L-1 ascorbic acid in distilled-sterile water. The cultures were placed in sterile petri plates and incubated in a growth chamber at 231°C in the dark or light and dark (16/8 h) condition. The substrate was renewed every 30-40 days for the increase in biomass. Callogenesis varied in response to hormonal concentrations and combinations. Callus formation was excellent using the combinations with the three growth regulators. According to this, the presence of auxin is indispensable to promote callogenesis in artichoke, while no significant statistical differences were observed between the explants grown in the dark and under 16 h photoperiod. The highest callus growth was registered in the dark by applying the lowest concentration of auxin, cytokinin and gibberellic acid. The results of this study show an efficient protocol for artichoke callus production.

The potential of land for energy crops is determined by an evaluation of biophysical and economical variables. From this respect, climate, soil and geomorphologic environmental components are the most important agro-ecological variables to conduct this kind of evaluation. In this study, Geographic Information System (GIS) has been used to identify the most suitable areas for rapeseed crop production in the Apulia region. Environmental components such as climate (precipitation, temperature), soil (chemical and physical characteristics including texture, gravel percentage, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), soil depth, etc.), topography (slope) and economical components (farm-useful surface, mechanization, percentage of land covered by cereals and horticulture, irrigated surface, set-aside surface) were considered. Biophysical parameters (climate, geomorphology and soil) were used to draw a map of agronomic suitability of rapeseed according to the Agronomic Classification of the Territory II (CAT II) classification system; a map of general suitability of rapeseed in the Apulia region has been drawn with the support of multicriteria analysis, which also takes into account the economical parameters. The results from overlay maps for agronomic evaluation in the Apulia region showed that 38% (189,983 ha) of the arable land area is highly suitable (S1), 43.4% (21,6642 ha) is moderately suitable (S2), 11.9% (59,487 ha) is marginally suitable (S3) and 6.7% (33,210 ha) is and not suitable (N) for rapeseed culThe GIS-multicriteria elaboration of the environmental factors together with structural components of Apulian farms showed that the province of Foggia represents 54.5% of the provincial arable land, whereas the province of Bari (28.8%) has large extent of suitable area for the cultivation of rapeseed for energy use.tivation.

One of the most important problems of micropropagated early Mediterranean artichokes was found in the phenotypical and behavioural variations in the field which determined the loss of earliness at harvest and consequently a lack of interest in using this method of propagation. The present work aimed to establish an efficient protocol for the micropropagation and the mycorrhizal inoculation of Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus Fiori cultivar “Violet de Provence” and to evaluate in-field assessment of the plants. Microrosettes of “Violet de Provence” were established in vitro on a nutrient medium enriched with isopentil adenine (2ip), indoleacetic acid (IAA) and gibberellic acid (GA3). The shoots were subcultured in the some medium supplemented with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), while, for root induction, indoleacetic acid (IAA) was used. At the time of transplant in greenhouse, the plantlets were inoculated or not with Glomus viscosum strain A6 (AM fungus). 4-month-old micropropagated plantlets were transferred to the field at the end of summer and morphological and productive parameters were investigated. The results obtained in the first year showed an uniform growth in the field of the artichoke plants, both phenotypically and in their behaviour, and a maintenance of the earliness. The use of this technique in early types o

The potential of land for energy crops is determined by an evaluation of biophysical and economical variables. From this respect, climate, soil and geomorphologic environmental components are the most important agro-ecological variables to conduct this kind of evaluation. In this study, Geographic Information System (GIS) has been used to identify the most suitable areas for cardoon crop production in the Apulia region. Environmental components such as climate (precipitation, temperature), soil (chemical and physical characteristics including texture, gravel percentage, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), soil depth, etc.), topography (slope) were considered. Biophysical parameters (climate, geomorphology and soil) were used to draw a map of agronomic suitability of cardoon according to the “Agronomic Classification of the Territory II” (CAT II) classification system. The results for agronomic evaluation in the Apulia region showed that 5.14% (36,532 ha), 54.17% (384,796 ha), 31.57% (224,251 ha) and 9.10% (64,665 ha) of the arable land area respectively highly suitable, moderately suitable, marginally suitable and not suitable for cardoon cultivation.

The role of mycorrhizal symbiosis in the alleviation of salinity stress induced by sodium chloride (NaCl) was investigated. Three artichoke hybrids, Madrigal F1, Opal F1, and Concerto F1 (Nunhems company), were grown in pot in controlled environment with two different mycorrhizal treatments (with or without Glomus viscosum). Two months after inoculation, the fungus established well on roots of the Madrigal and Opal plants with higher colonization and dependency values, instead the Concerto plants showed lower mycorrhizal dependency and colonization rate. Mycorrhizal symbiosis generally improved plant vegetative growth and sustained plant physiology increasing stomatal conductance and SPAD values. The root systems of two months old artichoke plantlets, both inoculated and non inoculated, were placed in distilled water enriched with different salt concentrations (0, 100, 150, 200, 250 mM NaCl) to study the wilting response. A visual rating system was developed defining various wilting indexes (T0, no wilting; T1, foliar damage on less than 50% of vegetal tissues of basal leaves; T2, initial wilting and foliar damage on more than 50% of vegetal tissues of basal leaves; T3, foliar damage on the apical leaves; and T4, total wilting). Mycorrhizal plants reached later the wilting indexes than non-mycorrhizal plants. Electrolyte leakage by leaves after salinity imposition was higher in non-mycorrhizal plants and the vegetal tissues were severely damaged especially in the basal leaves. The greater tolerance observed in the mycorrhizal plants could be in agreement with the improvement in growth stimulated by mycorrhizal symbiosis, which leads to the dilution of toxic ions. Key words: Glomus viscosum, Cynara cardunculus L. subsp. scolymus (L.) Hayek, salt stress, wilting index, electrolyte leakage, salt tolerance.

A research was started to standardize an effective system for large-scale production of early type artichoke plantlets in nursery. Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus Fiori plants of the “Locale di Mola” type were selected in field on the basis of their marked precocity. Offshoots from these plants were cultured in vitro to obtain artichoke plantlets fungi and bacteria free to improve the quality of propagation material. Once transplanted in pots, the plantlets were inoculated with 10 g Glomus viscosum strain A6 (AM fungus). Acclimatization was clearly facilitated by the addition of the AM fungus. Indeed, the mycorrhizal plantlets showed a higher survival percentage. Plants were grown under greenhouse conditions and, after six months, were cut back at the collar level. A week before cutting, mycorrhizal and not-mycorrhizal plants were treated with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP 200 mg l-1) to promote offshoot production. For three months after the cut, every month the offshoots of each plants were counted, harvested and weighted. Mycorrhizal inoculation alone stimulated offshoot production while the combination of growth regulator treatment and mycorrhizal symbiosis not increased further offshoot production. Cuttings, with weight ranging from 30 to 45 g, were used to evaluate the effect of mycorrhizal inoculation and two different indolacetic acid concentrations (IAA 100 and 500 mgl-1) on rooting. The highest rooting percentage (87%) was recorded on cuttings inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi. Rooted offshoots were transplanted in field and the morphological and productive parameters were investigated. Data collected confirm the characteristics of the original cultivar. The efficiency of the in vitro propagation material and the role of mycorrhiza optimize the system for large-scale offshoot production in early types of artichoke.

A research was made to standardize an effective system for large-scale production of early type globe artichoke plantlets in nursery. Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus Fiori plants of the 'Locale di Mola' type were selected in field on the basis of their marked precocity. Offshoots from these plants were cultured in vitro to obtain artichoke plantlets fungi and bacteria free to improve the quality of propagation material. Acclimatization was clearly facilitated by the addition of the two different mycorrhizal inoculants, Glomus viscosum and Glomus mosseae. Plants were grown under greenhouse conditions and, after six months, were cut back at the collar level. A week before cutting, mycorrhizal and not-mycorrhizal plants were treated with 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP 200 mg L-1) to promote offshoot production. For three months after the cut, every month the offshoots of each plant were counted, harvested and weighted. Finally the rooting of the cuttings obtained by offshoot produced was assisted by Glomus viscosum or Glomus mosseae inoculation or by immersion for 15 or 30 minutes in an aqueous solution of indol-3-acetic acid at two concentrations and compared with untreated plants. Mycorrhizal inoculation alone stimulates offshoot production while the combination growth regulator and mycorrhizal symbiosis does not increase further offshoot production. The rooting percentages of cuttings were enhanced by mycorrhizal treatments if compared with cuttings treated or not with indol-3-acetic acid. The results show the reliable technology to improve the efficiency of the production of artichoke transplants. The propagation system can be improved by mycorrhizal inoculation, favoring both the offshoot production and the offshoot rooting of Cynara cardunculus L. var. scolymus Fiori of the 'Locale di Mola' type. The efficiency of the in vitro propagation material and the role of mycorrhiza optimize the system for large-scale offshoot production in early types of artichoke.

Jerusalem artichoke is considered one of the most interesting crops for inulin production. It has been used to date for the production of low calorie sweetening syrups, dietetic food enriched with fibre, medicines and cosmetics, while more recently, interesting prospects have been opening up for energy uses. The main aspects influencing its adaptability to different pedo-climatic conditions and cropping systems were analysed by implementing CSS (Cropping System Simulator, a simulation model describing crop biomass production) for this specific crop. Growth analysis experimental data of plant dry matter accumulation, obtained over two years of trials (1999-2000) in different Italian growing areas (Udine, Bologna, Bari) under irrigated and rain-fed conditions, were used for the parameterisation and calibration of the model. The biomass accumulation observed and simulated under rain-fed and irrigated conditions in the different growing areas is reported for the different plant organs, with good correspondence shown between simulated and measured values as reported by the statistical indices for the model calibration, particularly for biomass of tubers and leaves. The model studied, despite a simplified description of some processes proves to represent the maximum biomass yield of Jerusalem artichoke satisfactorily, with an adequate response to the main environmental factors causing yield and biomass production variation among the years and locations. However, further model improvements are necessary in order to better represent the relationship between phen - ology and translocation of the assimilates between stalk and tuber during the development phases of the plant, suggesting shorter survey intervals over this growing phase.

Mycorrhizas give positive effects on survival and growth rates during acclimatization of many micropropagated species, such as artichoke. To improve these benefits, it is very important the selection of the most appropriate mycorrhizal fungus. Mycorrhizal effectiveness, in fact, depends on the compatibility between fungus and plant. In this research the effectiveness of two mycorrhizal fungus isolates (Glomus intraradices or Glomus viscosum) on micropropagated artichoke plantlets during acclimatization was investigated. Micropropagated plantlets of Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus Fiori of the “Locale di Mola” type were acclimatized in a climatic greenhouse. At the time of transplanting in pot Glomus intraradices or Glomus viscosum were added to peat and perlite (2:1 v/v ratio) and compared with untreated plants The effect of mycorrhizal fungi on growth (fresh and dry weights of shoot and root; the total leaf area, root length and density), chlorophyll content values (SPAD–502 portable chlorophyll meter; Minolta Camera Co.LTD) and gas exchange (Leaf porometer SC-1 Decagon Device) in the leaves was determined each month. The results obtained confirm the positive role of AM fungi colonization on survival and growth rate during acclimatization of artichoke plantlets. The higher SPAD is strictly related to an higher photosynthetic potential for mycorrhizal plants and consequently to their better nutrient status due to the symbiotic affinity recorded especially with Glomus viscosum inoculation. According to these results the growing of the plantlets results improved by the use of Glomus viscosum in the host-fungus combination. Finally, mycorrhizal plantlets showed higher stomatal conductance probably necessary to supply the carbon needs of fungal symbionts without significant difference between the two fungus species.

Medicago sativa L. is the most important forage crop in arid and semi-arid areas, where increased salinity is a major factor limiting plant growth and crop productivity. The role of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus Glomus viscosum H.T. Nicolson strain A6 in protecting alfalfa plants from salt stress, induced by sodium chloride (NaCl), was studied in two ways. Firstly, the root systems of 3-month old M. sativa plants, both mycorrhizal (AM+) and nonmycorrhizal (non-AM) (M. sativa L. var. icon), were placed in solutions of increasing salt concentrations (0, 50, 100, 150, 200 mM NaCl) to study the wilting response. G. viscosum improved the tolerance to salinity stress and the benefit was expressed in terms of the time required to reach the T4 stage in the wilting experiment. Secondly, to evaluate the ability of the Glomus-alfalfa symbiosis to tolerate salt, a pot experiment was set up in a glasshouse in which 3-month old alfalfa plants (M. sativa var. icon) were grown in a peat substratum at three salinity levels (0, 100, 150 mM NaCl). The AM symbiosis stimulated plant height, leaf area, root density, fresh and dry plant weight under saline conditions. Furthermore, proline accumulation was higher in mycorrhizal M. sativa plants than in non-mycorrhizal plants under conditions of salt stress. These and other results indicated that the micropropagated selected clone of M. sativa var. icon, when in symbiosis with G. viscosum H.T. Nicolson strain A6, exhibited better growth and physiological activities under saline conditions than non-AM plants. The AM+ plants also had lower sodium and chloride concentrations in tissues than non-AM plants.