A consortium of private ICT companies and Research institutions has developed anew automatized decision support system which integrates the results of scientificachievements and technological innovations in the fields of crop water requirementsand irrigation scheduling, on-field data acquisition, transmission and management,and application of web and app tools for real-time irrigation management. Thedecision support system, called Hydro-Tech (HT-DSS) aimed: a) to design a 'simpleand practical', user-friendly computer/mobile-based DSS, by considering also theend-user feedbacks and specific requirements; b) to test and validate at farm levelthe effectiveness and reliability of simulations for different vegetables, fruit treesand grapevine crops, under different agronomic, management and pedo-climaticconditions; c) to test the effective integration of different technologies; and d) toevaluate the most cost-effective solutions. The HT-DSS is based on the Guidelines forcomputing crop water requirements described in the FAO Irrigation and DrainagePaper 56 and consecutive updates and improvements. The system runs on a dailybasis at the scale of a single 'irrigated plot' and permits the optimization of irrigationinputs at the farm scale through a dynamic multi-crop/farm optimizer. A standardinterface connecting the on-field devices with the client software applicationthrough a Data Cloud Network (Hydrotech Data Cloud, HDC) was developed. Itsupports, via new generation of smart devices (tablets, smartphones, laptops),wireless and continuous monitoring of the on-field weather/soil/crop conditions andthe remote control and management of irrigation. The main algorithms of the modelare briefly introduced in this paper, together with the preliminary results of the ongoingexperimental activity at farm level in Apulia region (Southern Italy).

Brassicaceae are promising oil feedstock for cultivation in centralsouthern Italy. Therefore, a two-year investigation on Brassica carinata A. Braun (cv. CT 204) was carried out in three sites of Apulia region [Site 1, Alberobello - Murgia foreland; Site 2, Troia (Foggia) - Daunian sub-Apennines; Site 3, Monteroni (Lecce) - Area of Salento], and in one site of Basilicata region (Site 4, Hill of Matera). The aim was to identify site-specific management practices [by comparing minimum vs conventional tillage, low sowing density vs high sowing density; different levels of nitrogen (N) supply and organic fertilisers] in the four different marginal areas, to achieve optimum yield performance for biodiesel prospective production. The crop showed a good adaptability in the study sites, and the highest N level positively influenced the yield performance in Sites 1, 2 and 3. Moreover, the reduction of mechanical operations (minimum tillage) did not negatively influence crop production and seed oil content. The highest density of sowing tested determined the best crop performance in Site 3, particularly showing the maximum seed oil content with the lowest N supply. Finally, in Site 4 the compost mixed with mineral N fertiliser as well as the sewage sludge from urban wastewater determined productive results comparable to those obtained with mineral fertiliser, evidencing that organic fertilisers could (partially or completely) substitute the mineral one for this crop in the study site. On the whole, seed yield and oil content showed a potential for biodiesel production of Brassica carinata cultivated with site-specific agronomic techniques in four different marginal areas of Southern Italy, suggesting it can be likely achieved the crop environmental adaptation.

The aim was to evaluate morpho-biochemical traits in four asparagus cultivars ('Early California', 'Grande', 'Purple Passion', and 'Vegalim'), and qualitative changes in 'Grande' and 'Purple Passion' during storage in air or passive modified atmosphere packaging (MAP, 15% O2 - 5% CO2), at 4 °C for 28 days. 'Early California' showed the highest total phenolic (TPh) and quercetin-3-rutinoside (rutin) content, and the highest total antioxidant activity (TAA). 'Purple Passion' was the richest in glucose and total sugars, while 'Early California' the least rich in sucrose. The nitrate content was lower than 100 mg kg-1 FM and potassium on average 280 mg 100 g-1 FM. The MAP reduced weight loss, ensuring product turgidity and mitigating the cold storage stress. In the first 7 days in storage, 'Purple Passion' showed higher values of TPh, rutin and TAA. Afterwards, TPh content increased in both cultivars in MAP. During storage, sugars gradually decreased, except sucrose in 'Purple Passion', increased by almost 40% after 14 days. 'Grande' and 'Purple Passion' spears showed optimal overall quality up to 14 days-storage, but they could not be stored for more than 21 days. Moreover, MAP allowed to preserve or enhance antioxidant properties of asparagus during the whole storage.

In Puglia, lungo i muretti a secco delimitanti i campi coltivati e nelle aree boschive a macchia mediterranea, è molto diffuso l'asparago selvatico apprezzato per le sue caratteristiche organolettiche e nutrizionali. Osservando attentamente un mazzetto di asparagi selvatici, si può notare una elevata variabilità delle caratteristiche cromatiche e del grado di 'tenerezza' dei turioni; ciò è determinato prevalentemente dal microambiente in cui ciascun turione si è accresciuto e, in modo particolare, dalla prevalenza della radiazione solare diretta o diffusa. In pratica, i turioni raccolti nelle zone più assolate sono di colore dal verde scuro al violaceo e si presentano coriacei, mentre quelli raccolti nel sottobosco sono di colore verde chiaro e più teneri.L'elevata richiesta di mercato dell'asparago e la carenza di aree naturali in cui raccogliere quello selvatico, ha dato una forte spinta alla coltivazione di quest'orticola che attualmente vede la Puglia tra le prime tre regioni produttrici a livello nazionale. In considerazione dell'idea comune che i prodotti selvatici presentano una migliore qualità rispetto a quelli coltivati, è stato realizzato uno studio comparativo di valutazione di alcune caratteristiche qualitative di quattro ibridi ('Early California', 'Grande', 'Vegalim' e 'Purple passion') di asparago coltivato (Asparagus officinalis L.) e dell'asparago selvatico (A. acutifolius L.) raccolto nel sottobosco e in aree assolate di una querceta della Puglia meridionale. In particolare, sono stati valutati: la percentuale di sostanza secca (DM), il contenuto di clorofilla (Chl), carotenoidi (Ca), fenoli totali (TF) e l'attività antiossidante (TAA).Per l'asparago selvatico, tutti i caratteri esaminati si sono differenziati in relazione al luogo di raccolta. I turioni raccolti nelle zone assolate presentavano valori di DM, Chl, Ca, TF e TAA, riferiti al peso fresco (FM), più elevati rispettivamente del 16, 30, 53, 64 e 62%, rispetto a quelli raccolti nel sottobosco. Tra le cultivar di asparago coltivato, non sono state osservate variazioni di DM, Chl e Ca (in media 7,4 g 100 g-1, 5,4 mg 100 g-1 FM e 1,3 mg 100 g-1 FM, rispettivamente), mentre TF e TAA sono variati rispettivamente da 123,2 mg CAE 100 g-1 FM ('Early California') a 89 mg CAE 100 g-1 FM ('Purple passion') e da 69,1 mg Trolox 100 g-1 FM ('Early California') a 52,4 mg Trolox 100 g-1 FM ('Grande' e 'Vegalim'). L'asparago coltivato, rispetto all'asparago selvatico, ha presentato in media valori di DM, Chl, Ca, TF e TAA, riferiti a FM, più bassi di circa il 40, 5, 17, 43 e 53%, rispettivamente.In conclusione possiamo affermare che l'asparago selvatico, soprattutto se raccolto nelle zone con maggiore insolazione, presenta, limitatamente ai parametri considerati, caratteristiche qualitative più elevate rispetto all'asparago coltivato.

This study focused on the assessment of the interactive effect of deficit irrigation and strobilurin application in improving tomato physiological and yield response under water shortage.A two-year field research (2011 and 2012) was carried out in southern Italy, on tomato grown under three irrigation regimes - full recovering of crop evapotranspiration (I100), 50% of full irrigation supply (I50) and rainfed (I0) - and with three fungicide treatments - control (F0) without any fungicide; application of fungicides without strobilurin (F1); application of a strobilurin based fungicide (Cabrio® Duo) (F2). Plant water status, yield and quality parameters, biomass and yield water use efficiency (B_WUE and Y_WUE), yield and biomass water response factors (Ky and Kby) were assessed. Water shortage significantly affected yield and quality response: as an average of the two years, a marketable yield decrement of 52.7 and 80.5% was observed in I50 and I0 in respect to I100 treatment, respectively, because of the reduction in both fruit weight and number. Fruit dry matter, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, firmness and redness showed an increase to the decline of water availability. Strobilurin based fungicide application increased total and marketable yield by 14.2% and 19.1%, respectively. In addition, strobilurin improved the plant water status under water shortage as a consequence of reduction in stomatal conductance.Deficit irrigation caused a decrease of B_WUE and Y_WUE, while the strobilurin application improved Y_WUE by 17%. Kby and Ky on average were equal to 1.11 and 1.40, respectively, and were unaffected by fungicide treatments. These results indicated the potential benefits of using strobilurin based agrochemicals in tomato disease management, due to their complementary action in improving yield, WUE, and plant water status under water stress conditions.

Ready-to-eat asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) is a tasty food with excellent nutraceutical properties. In order to realize a new ready-to-eat product, in this study asparagus's spears were cooked by blanching or microwave, and then dehydrated until they reached a weight loss of 25%,and packaged in air or in modified atmosphere (30% CO2 + 70% N2). Sensorial, physico-chemical,biochemical, and microbiological parameters were evaluated during a 30 days storage period at 4°C. The microwave cooking proved to be the most effective method to preserve green colour,improving the overall acceptability of the product. Moreover, the storage in the absence of O2 andin the presence of high CO2 percentage was the most effective method to preserve phytochemicalcomposition, total antioxidant capacity, and hygienic quality. In conclusion, asparagus spearscooked by microwave, semi-dried, packaged in modified atmosphere and stored at 4 °C for 30 daysretained their quality and sensorial properties.

In the last decade, among the species proposed for the production of renewable energy, a growing interest has been directed toward the cardoon, due to the high biomass that can be obtained even in marginal environments without irrigation and with low input nitrogen. Studies carried out in Italy and in other Mediterranean countries demonstrated the high variability of the cardoon response in terms of biomass and seed production performance, in relation to the genotype and the cultivation environment. Given the need to use marginal land for bioenergy crops to avoid competition with food crops, a trial in a marginal area of the Sub-Appennino Dauno (southern Italy) was carried out, to identify genotypes that are best suited to this environment and alternative strategies to fulfil crop nitrogen requirements. The trial was carried out during 2012-2013 on a two-year-old crop in rainfed conditions, to compare three nitrogen management strategies and four genotypes: i) unfertilized control (N0), one nitrogen level (50 kg ha-1, N1), and unfertilized with the intercropping with subterranean clover (Trifolium brachycalycinum Katzn. and Morley) in order to exploit the nitrogen-fixing capacity (TB); ii) a wild cardoon (Cynara cardunculus L. var. sylvestris Lamk) landrace (RCT10) and 3 lines (CDL07, CDL09, CDL10) of domestic cardoon (C. cardunculus L. var. altilis DC.). A split plot with three replications experimental design was adopted. Drought during the growing season played a crucial role in the experiment. 'CDL07' performed better in terms of above ground dry biomass (AGDB) with 9.0 Mg ha-1 with respect to the other genotypes (5.4 Mg ha-1, on average). On the contrary, grain yield was the highest in 'RCT10' (2.0 Mg ha-1) and the lowest in 'CDL10' (0.6 Mg ha-1). N1 performed better both for AGDB yield (10.7 Mg ha-1) and seed yield (2.2 Mg ha-1). Conversely, TB provided very low yield (1.4 and 0.2 Mg ha-1, AGDB and seed yield, respectively) because of adverse effect of competition of subterranean clover for water. Results confirmed high variability in biomass and seed yield of different genotypes and the limiting role of the water availability in environments such as those Mediterranean. The intercropping with subterranean clover as eco-sustainable strategy for nitrogen supply is not suitable in dry areas.

Tomato for processing is a very widespread crop in the Mediterranean area whereoften there are problems of high salinity of irrigation water. It's well known that thehigh salinity creates physiological problems with considerable negative effects onproduction.Pyraclostrobin belongs to a class of fungicide (strobilurins) having a broad spectrumof applications, with preventive, curative, translaminar and locosystemic properties.In the literature it is reported that strobilurins can affect the plant metabolismresulting in the increase of yield, dry matter, content of both chlorophyll and proteinand delay senescence. In addition, it was observed plant water balance modificationby reducing root water uptake, resulting in the postponement of soil dehydration,so it may contribute to yield enhancement. Because many effects of salt stress arecomparable to water stress, we may speculate that Pyraclostrobin could alleviatedetrimental effects of salinity on plants.This study focused on the interactive effect of salinity and Pyraclostrobin applicationon tomato grown in pots under plastic tunnel. The objective was to investigatethe complementary properties of Pyraclostrobin in the improvement of tomatophysiological (SPAD, gas exchange, activity of antioxidative enzymes as SOD, CAT,POD, APX), yield and fruit quality responses under salinity.A two-year research (2010 and 2011) was carried out in Basilicata region, southernItaly, on cv Coronel to compare two soil salinity levels - 1.0 (S0) and 5.4 dS m-1 (S1)- and two fungicide treatments - application of fungicides without strobilurins (F0);application of a strobilurin based fungicide (Cabrio® Duo) (F1). The treatments werearranged in a split plot design with seven replicates.On overall, when plants are treated with Pyraclostrobin, a considerable increase inPOD, APX and CAT activity occurred, whereas no significant changes were observedin SOD. Different extent of changes in enzyme activity was observed in the two partsof the plant: POD increased only in roots, APX in roots as well as in leaves, and CATonly in leaves. In some sampling date, the increase in antioxidant enzyme activitieswas higher in saline stressed plants.The amount of chlorophyll, measured in SPAD units, did not differed between salinitylevels, instead, F1 showed the increase of about 6%. Gas exchanges were influencedby salinity level and fungicide treatments. In particular, S1 has shown values of net assimilation (A), transpiration (T) and stomatal conductance (gs) respectively of about 17, 26 and 22% lower than S0, while the water use efficiency (WUE) was not influenced. Pyraclostrobin reduced A and T by about 8%, and gs by about 17%.Salinity reduced fruit mean weight by 19%, total and marketable yield by 25 and 21%, respectively, and increased fruit blossom-end rot (BER) by 57%. Among the qualitative parameters, salinity caused the increase of total soluble solids (TSS) and dry mat

In view of increasing water demand by other sectors, and expected reduction ofwater availability in the future, it is necessary to adopt water management strategieswhich aim at water saving while maintaining satisfactory levels of production. One ofthese strategies is to improve water use efficiency through the application of deficitirrigation (DI) which deliberately sustains some degree of water deficit and yieldreduction. The expectation of these strategies is that any yield reduction will be notsignificant as compared with the benefits gained from water saving.Partial root-zone deficit irrigation (PRD) is a DI technique to save irrigation waterwithout much yield reduction. In fact, several authors report that when only part ofthe root system undergoes water-stress, abscissic acid (ABA) may be produced.This is transported through the xylem towards the leaves and reduces stomatalopening. On the contrary, poor root function reduces the production of cytokininswhich are responsible for stomatal opening. These two aspects may combine toreduce stomatal opening and, consequently, gaseous exchange between the leavesand the surrounding environment.This study focused on the effect of DI via PRD on gas exchange, assimilateddistribution, yield, and water use efficiency (WUE), to acquire useful information forthe possible application of this technique on eggplant crop.Research has been carried out in southern Italy to study the split-root water stresseffect on some physiological and morphological parameters of eggplant (Solanummelongena L. cv Tania). Plants were grown in pots and the root system was dividedinto two equal halves by a plastic wall. The pots were put in open air and the soilsurface was covered by a waterproof film to protect the soil from rain water. Thefollowing treatments were compared: 1) the entire rhizosphere (both halves) wellwatered during the whole vegetative cycle (WW); 2) half a rhizosphere well wateredand the other half water stressed after the beginning of blooming until the end ofthe vegetative cycle (WS1); 3) half a rhizosphere well watered and the other halfwater stressed, 30 days later in respect to treatment WS1, and until the end of thevegetative cycle (WS2). It was adopted a randomized blocks layout with 5 replicates.The results showed that stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration and assimilationrate (A) decreased at beginning of partial root water shortage cycle, but after thefirst days of plant adaptation to the new situation, was observed a recovery in this parameters, mainly in A. The reduction of gs is likely to depend not only by the low water potential in the xylem but also by ABA and cytokinins produced by the stressed root system. The shoot/root ratio decreased in PRD plants, mainly in WS1. In PRD plants was observed a reduction in yield, by around 13 (WS1) and 9% (WS2) but, because of lower evapotranspiration experienced by these plants, the WUE increa

Environmental stress, as high air temperature and low relative humidity, increases the evaporative demand of the atmosphere, drives the sap flow mainly towards the leaves and causes a calcium deficiency in the artichoke heads that often promotes the formation of atrophic heads. The hypothesis is that conditions leading to a reduction of leaf temperature and transpiration can contribute to reduce the Ca deficiency-related disorders. Therefore, the use of kaolin-based particle film could be an effective tool as antitranspirant, thus mitigating detrimental effect of high evaporative demand that leads to the head atrophy. This study has investigated the effects of kaolin on gas exchange, yield and head atrophy of artichoke 'Violetto di Provenza', during June 2009-May 2010 in field conditions (southern Italy). The following treatments were compared: control without kaolin (C); kaolin sprayed plants starting 60 days (K1) and 67 days (K2) after the awakening. Kaolin, overall, at leaf scale caused the reduction, respectively by 10.3 and 23.8% in assimilation rate and transpiration, which led to 17.9% increase in photosynthetic water use efficiency. The production of marketable heads and atrophic heads not changed with kaolin application. The atrophic heads, all produced in the first three harvests, were 1,635 and 1,346 ha-1, respectively in C and K treatments, corresponding to 51.0 and 44.1% of total yield obtained in the same harvests. This does not exclude that kaolin can reduce heads atrophy, since the excessive earliness in artichoke awakening (mid-June), might have placed the crop in extreme climatic conditions, not sufficiently 'mitigated' from kaolin. Less extreme climatic conditions, which normally occur by awakening the artichoke later, could instead be mitigated by kaolin. Therefore, it would be useful to repeat the trial by scheduling artichoke awakening in different periods

Irrigated agriculture is dependent on adequate water supply and its quality. Waterused for irrigation can vary greatly in quality, depending upon type and quantity ofdissolved salts. They originate from dissolution or weathering of the rocks and soils,and by intrusion of seawater into the river and underground water resources. Theproblem of saltwater intrusion due to groundwater over-exploitation is one of themajor threats in the coastal areas of Italy, as occurs in Apulia region, where thechronic water shortage forces farmers to use saline irrigation water.Salinity is detrimental for many crops because of its negative effects on the physiologyand production. The salinity tolerance, as well as the genotype, is influenced byseveral agronomic and environmental parameters as air temperature and relativehumidity (RH). Thus, conditions leading to a reduction of transpiration, as lowertemperature and higher RH, can contribute to greater tolerance to salinity. Thus,the techniques that reduce the transpiration rate and heat stress of the crops couldhave a positive effect on salinity tolerance. Among those there is the kaolin-basedparticle film technology (Pft) that employs a multi-functional, environmentally friendlymaterial effective in pest control, mitigation of heat stress, and to produce fruit andvegetables of good quality. The presence of mineral particles over leaves and fruitsurfaces interferes with physiological processes, mainly with heat and radiationbalance and gas exchange.Therefore, it was hypothesized that the Pft could contribute to increasing the salttolerance. In consideration that the tomato, species moderately sensitive to salinity,is a major vegetable crops present in the areas of Apulia at risk of salinity, to verifythe hypotheses, was investigated the effects of Pft on yield and quality, and wateruse efficiency of field grown tomato.The research was carried out in three years on tomato for processing, irrigated withbrackish water, in Southern Italy. Treatments were i) three salinity levels of irrigationwater (Electrical Conductivity of water = 0.5, 5, and 10 dS m-1), ii) tomato plantstreated or not with kaolin, and iii) two cultivars in each year, arranged in a split plotdesign with three replications.The salinity increase caused the reduction in yield mainly for declining fruit weight,but the fruit quality was better in terms of dry matter content and total soluble solids. In addition, salinity increased the blossom-end rot mainly on cultivar with elongated fruits.Pft, overall, as average of three years, improved total (12.7%) and marketable yield (17.7%), fruit weight (8.1%) and harvest index (10.3%), and reduced fruit sunburn by 76.4%. In addition, kaolin contributed to the declining in insect attack to the fruit (58.7%), improvement in total solid soluble (6.2%) and redness (10.2% the skin and 16.6% the pulp) of fruits, and increased yield water use efficiency (Y_WUE

In this paper the evolution of irrigation methods, in relation to socio-economic andtechnological developments, with particular reference to the territory of the Apulianregion, are reported.The evolution of irrigation methods was determined not only by the need to reducewater consumption, but also to irrigation management at the farm level, such as:- the gradual increase in the cost of labor;- the growing decrease in the labor supply, even during the day.In the fifties of the last century, irrigation was performed with gravitational methods,while in the following decades it has gone progressively towards sprinklers and lowpressure localized methods. The transition from gravitational irrigation methods tosprinkler and localized low pressure methods, water distribution was also aided bythe evolution of the public water supply network. In fact the water distribution networkchanged from the free surface (channels) to pressure pipes, and the type of waterdelivery, both rounded or on demand, according to the needs of the crops.Now water networks begin to be realized equipped also with hydrants that, usemagnetic cards (AcquaCard) showing contractual obligations.Water pipe networks delivery and the prevalence of autonomous water sources(private wells) have encouraged the spread of automation in irrigation management.However, the drilling of a large number of wells, on one hand has encouraged theexpansion of irrigated areas and the spread of automated irrigation methods, onthe other is leading to excessive pumping of water from aquifers, resulting in theirprogressive salinization, as occurs along the Adriatic coast.The evolution of irrigation methods, however, has relatively little contributed tocontain specific seasonal irrigation volumes, so the future challenge will be to makethe use of the current irrigation methods more efficient, through a correct definition ofthe irrigation variables (watering volumes and irrigation time) , in relation to:- the hydrological characteristics of the soil;- crops water needs;- the criterion of maximum cost-effectiveness of water use.Research institutions are focusing their actions on these issues and are alreadyavailable information to be transferred in practice to promote water conservation.To make those information more usable in practice, however, it would be desirablethe strengthening of technical support in agriculture.

Many irrigated areas of the Mediterranean such as Apulia region have problemsof high salinity of the irrigation water with a negative impact on soil fertility and onproduction. To limit these effects is necessary to minimize the supply of salt andpromote leaching, using an adequate irrigation management, which may varyaccording to climatic conditions, soil type and crop management.Yield results related to a two years trial of a grain maize crop, irrigated with furrowmethod and included in a four-year rotation (maize, sunflower, maize, wheat), arereported. This activity was carried out in Apulia, on a shallow red soil, resting onfissured calcareous rock, as part of multi-year research, with the aim to evaluate theinfluence of water quality and irrigation regime on the production of some crops andthe possibility that the rain water could leach solutes brought with irrigation water.Ten treatments, resulting from the factorial combination of two types of water (freshwater with electrical conductivity-ECw- of 1.2 dS m-1 and brackish water with ECwof 5 dS m-1) have been compared, with the following seasonal irrigation regimes:i) 75% of the maximum crop evapotranspiration (ETc); ii) 100% of ETc; iii) 100%of ETc, plus 50% of the needs of leaching (LR), calculated as: LR = ECw / (5 ECe- ECw), where ECw = electrical conductivity of irrigation water (dS m-1); ECe =electrical conductivity of the saturated extract of the soil; iv) 100% of ETc, plus 100%of LR, calculated as previously indicated; v) 100% of ETc until flowering, and 75% ofETc until the end of the crop cycle.It was adopted a split plot experimental design with four replications. Irrigation wasperformed when in the treatment irrigated at 100% of ETc, the matric potential of thewater in the layer of soil explored by the roots was equal to 0.1 MPa, providing theirrigation volume necessary to bring the matric potential to -0.03 MPa. In the firstyear there was no difference of corn production attributable to the water quality; inthe second year, however, due to the accumulation of solutes in the soil for threeconsecutive seasons, the yield of grain obtained in the plots irrigated with brackishwater, compared to those obtained in the plots irrigated with fresh water, have beenreduced by 33.3 % (6.8 vs 10.2 t ha-1). Moving from the lower irrigation volume, tothe most abundant (seasonal volume of irrigation sufficient to satisfy, respectively,75% and 100% of ETc, plus 100% of LR), as average of the two years, the yield ofgrain increased from 7.4 to 9.1 t ha-1.

Irrigation is a crucial practice that operators often perform empirically, relying on their own experience, especially in productive areas characterized by low technology agriculture (i.e. several parts of Mediterranean countries). One of the possible approach for proper irrigation scheduling is measuring the soil water potential, simple and easy to manage. The purpose of this research was to examine the effects of two different irrigation regimes (obtained by the use of tensiometer connected to a relay controller) on yield, fruit quality and water consumption of greenhouse tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. 'Naxos') and cucumber (Cucumis sativus L. 'Sarig' in the first cropping cycle, and 'Mezzo lungo di Polignano', a local landarace, in the second one) grown on a silty-clay soil in Mediterranean conditions. For each species, two tests (August-February and February-July cycle) were carried out in a plastic greenhouse-tunnel. Drip irrigation was adopted, with automated schedule based on tensiometer readings. Two water potential irrigation set-points were compared: -100 and -400 hPa for tomato and -100 and -300 hPa for cucumber, in both cycles. Yield (marketable and unmarketable) and quality traits of fruits (soluble solids, dry matter and titratable acidity) were determined. Water consumption was calculated at the end of each crop cycle. In the first cycle, the two water regimes did not affect the yield of tomato and cucumber. The cucumber irrigated at the lowest soil water potential set-point produced fruits with 8% higher dry matter. In the second cycle, the tomato irrigated at the potential of -400 hPa showed a 40% lower yield (mainly due to the lower fruit size) compared to that of plants irrigated at -100 hPa. The fruits of tomato plants irrigated at -400 hPa, however, showed total soluble solids, dry matter and titratable acidity respectively 41, 45 and 59% higher than -100 hPa. On average, in both crop cycles, a water saving of 35% and 46% on average for tomato and cucumber, respectively, was obtained using the lowest potential as irrigation set-point.Proper use of tensiometer could allow a better use of water resource. Selection of proper water potential set-points according to the cultivation season is crucial for satisfactory results. The positive effects of a controlled and moderate water stress on fruit quality should be taken into account.

Le prove svolte in pien'aria e in vasi in serra su pomodoro hanno permesso di evidenziare come l'impiego di fungicidi a base di strobilurine, oltre alla loro principale funzione, possa migliorare lo stato idrico della pianta, in particolare in condizioni di stress idrico. Inoltre il loro utilizzo ha determinato un aumento dell'efficienzad'uso dell'acqua e della produzione totale e commerciabile.

This work aims at improving the estimation of artichoke evapotranspiration inMediterranean climates through the modelling of crop coefficients (Kc) and duration ofphenological phases of a seed propagated artichoke. A two years trial was carried outat the experimental station "E. Pantanelli" of University Aldo Moro (Bari), located in thecountryside of Policoro (MT), southern Italy.The seed propagated artichoke cv. 044 was grown in two weighing lysimeters placed ina large field and watered regularly. The irrigation was applied when 40% of totalavailable water in the soil layer occupied by roots was consumed which correspondedto the crop evapotranspiration (ETc) between 25 and 40 mm. Irrigation was applied insuch a way to replenished completely the depletion of water in the root zone. Thereference evapotranspiration (ETo) was computed daily, by using Penman-Monteithequation from the weather data collected at the agro-meteorological station near theexperimental field. The growing season started in mid of July and ended in the secondpart of May.The artichoke crop cycle was 310 and 313 days in the 1st and 2nd year, respectively.Average seasonal ETc measured at two lysimeters was slightly higher in the 1st year(967 mm) than in the 2nd one (911 mm). Water use obtained in this trial was 85%higher than usually reported in the literature for vegetatively propagated crops in thesame area and with similar crop length. Most likely this was due to taller crops (1.7 inrespect to 0.8 m) and higher biomass production in seed propagated crop.Crop coefficients (Kc), calculated daily as the ratio between ETc and ETo, revealed thatfive phenological stages could be considered in ETc estimate: i) the seedlingestablishment of about 30 days; ii) the initial development phase of approximately 60days; iii) winter vegetative stagnation of approximately 90 days; iv) spring recovery ofabout 90 days, and v) full development stage of about 45 days. The Kc values duringthe seedling establishment were between 0.3 and 0.4 and increased up to 0.8-0.9 atthe end of initial development period. The Kc values were reduced gradually to 0.4 atthe end of winter vegetative stagnation and then increased up to 1.1 during the fulldevelopment period.The presented results differ from those available in the literature since they refer to aseed propagated artichoke which is taller and more vigorous than vegetativelypropagated crop. In the last years, the former crop tends to substitute the later one inmany Mediterranean areas and a proper crop evapotranspiration estimate and irrigationmanagement are of crucial importance for a more efficient water use in the region.Further efforts could focus on the introduction of the growing degree days concept andsubstitution of sum of days with thermal sums as well as on the link between Kc andleaf area index (LAI).

Kaolin-based particle film technology (Pft) employs a multi-functional,environmentally friendly material that provides effective insect control, mitigates heatstress, and contributes to production of high-quality fruit and vegetables. Thesecharacteristics make kaolin suitable also for organic farming, especially in arid andsemi-arid environments.The presence of mineral particles on leaves and fruit surfaces interferes withphysiological processes, mainly with heat and radiation balance and gas exchange.Several experimental findings show that the Pft, as well to limit the damage from someinsects, changes the radiative and thermal regime of the different organs of the plantthat may result in a significant reduction in stress from high temperatures, mainlysunburn, as widely proven on apple, pear, pomegranate and tomato.The Institute of Sciences of Food Production, CNR, for several years is carrying outresearch to test the effects of kaolin on the control of the heat stress and some insectsof fruit trees and vegetables. In addition, is evaluating the effects on gas exchange,water and salt stress. In the latter area, was assessed the gas exchange,evapotranspiration and water use efficiency (WUE) of tomato, orange and bean. Inaddition, we studied the effects on transplanting stress of seedling of tomato, pepper,eggplant and zucchini. In this paper we report some significant results that highlight thepositive effect of kaolin on the reduction of evapotranspiration, water use, water andsaline stress, and improvement of WUE.The water and salinity stress has caused the reduction of the leaf water potential,stomatal conductance, leaf net photosynthesis and transpiration and the increase ofleaf and canopy temperature of tomato plants. The kaolin has resulted in animprovement of the water status of the plant, the reduction in stomatal conductance,net photosynthesis and transpiration under well watered or low salinity conditions.Instead, under drought or salt stress, the kaolin was effective to limiting the reductionsin net photosynthesis and to reduce leaf and canopy temperature, resulting respectivelyin a 15 and 20% in WUE increase. The leaf and canopy temperature was slightlyaffected by kaolin, in different ways in different water/salt stress treatments. Inparticular, while in non stressed plant it was 0.2-0.8 °C higher in the kaolin-treatedplants, the situation was reversed in stressed plants. In fact, in the latter situation, thekaolin has determined 0.2-1.5 °C reduction in canopy temperature, especially at noontime. The variations of the canopy temperature show that the kaolin influences thethermal balance of vegetation mainly for the dual effect of reflection of the incomingradiation and partial occlusion of the stomata.Kaolin has reduced by 13% the crop evapotranspiration of bean and has resulted in a6% increase in the yield-WUE. In well watered orange tree kaolin led to a reduction

In molte aree dell'Italia meridionale in cui è diffusa la coltivazione del carciofo (Cynara cardunculus [L.] subsp. scolymus Hayek), l'acqua impiegata per l'irrigazione presenta elevata salinità a causa della salinizzazione della falda per intrusione marina. Per limitare i danni da salinità sulle colture è necessario adottare appropriate strategie agronomiche tra cui la scelta dei genotipi più tolleranti. In considerazione del crescente interesse verso nuovi ibridi di carciofo propagati per 'seme', è stata realizzata un'attività di ricerca poliennale per valutarne il grado di tolleranza alla salinità, in confronto con il 'Violetto di Provenza' e il 'Catanese', le cultivar più diffuse in Puglia.Le prove sperimentali sono state realizzate in pien'aria presso il CDS 'E. Pantanelli' dell'Università di Bari Aldo Moro. Sono state valutate nove cultivar ibride (Orlando, Concerto, Tempo, Madrigal, Symphony, Opal, A106, Lorca, Violin), di cui sono state determinate le principali caratteristiche dei capolini (numero e peso, numero di capolini atrofici, sostanza secca). I genotipi più produttivi nel controllo non salino sono risultati 'Tempo', 'Concerto', 'A106' e 'Madrigal' (in media 2670 g pianta-1), i meno produttivi 'Catanese', 'Violin' e 'Lorca' (in media 1652 g pianta-1). In generale, la produzione di capolini si è ridotta progressivamente con l'aumento della salinità, in misura diversa in relazione alle cultivar, mentre la sostanza secca è aumentata con l'aumento della salinità. La riduzione di produzione si è manifestata principalmente per la diminuzione del peso medio dei capolini e, in secondo luogo, del loro numero. L'applicazione del modello di tolleranza alla salinità di Maas e Hoffman (1977) ha messo in evidenza la notevole variabilità tra le cultivar dei parametri caratteristici del modello che ne sintetizzano il grado di tolleranza: il livello di salinità oltre il quale comincia a manifestarsi una riduzione produttiva (soglia critica), la riduzione di produzione per ogni incremento unitario della ECe (pendenza), e il valore di ECe in corrispondenza del quale la produzione si dimezza (ECe50). I genotipi esaminati si suddividono in due gruppi in termini di soglia di tolleranza. Il primo gruppo ('Symphony', 'Tempo', 'A106', 'Opal' e 'Orlando') presenta un valore medio di 2,0 dS m-1, mentre il secondo 3,9 dS m-1. Combinando i valori di soglia con quelli relativi alla pendenza, molto variabile tra i genotipi, si ottengono valori di EC50 compresi tra 8,4 di 'Symphony', il genotipo meno tollerante la salinità, e 17,2 dS m-1 di 'Concerto', il genotipo più tollerante. Le informazioni ottenute possono essere utili agli agricoltori nella scelta dei genotipi di carciofo da coltivare in presenza di salinità. In particolare, la scelta deve essere orientata verso i genotipi con elevata soglia per valori di salinità moderati; in presenza di salinità elevata, invece, ci si dovrebbe orientare verso i genotipi con i più alti valori di ECe50.

Dielectric moisture sensors are particularly suitable for irrigation management in greenhouse soilless production. Identifying the practical effects of substrate water content set-points on crop performance is crucial for successful sensor-based irrigation. We designed and constructed a prototype cloud-connected system for wireless, sensor based irrigation management, and tested it on basil, grown in a perlite-coco (1:1 v:v) soilless substrate under greenhouse conditions. Dielectric moisture/salinity sensors (GS3, Decagon Devices, Pullman - WA, USA) were used. The study, with two subsequent experiments, assessed i) the effects of a progressive decline in substrate water availability, corresponding to moisture levels from water holding capacity to 0.10 m(3) m(-3), on the gas exchange parameters and leaf water status of basil plants; ii) the short-term recovery response of plants when re watered after substrate water content has decreased to different levels; iii) the effects of different irrigation set points (0.40, 0.30 and 0.20 m(3) m(-3)) and leaching rates (approximate to 8% or approximate to 18%) on the basil crop performance over a complete growing cycle. No physiological stress responses were observed on basil plants when moisture level was higher than approximately 0.20 m(3) m(-3), while plants showed drought symptoms at approximately 0.17 m(3) m(-3), corresponding to a substrate matric potential and hydraulic conductivity of -300 hPa and 0.0005 cm day(-1), respectively. Photosynthesis and leaf water potential recovered to values similar to non-stress conditions following a short drought (with moisture level as low as 0.10 m(3) m(-3)). Basil growth was similar when plants were grown with irrigation set-points of 0.40, 0.30 or 0.20 m(3) m(-3) for the complete growing cycle. Fresh weight tended to increase when a higher leaching rate was used, probably because leaching lowered substrate EC. Water use efficiency (basil fresh weight/unit water used) was similar at different irrigation set points and leaching rates. Our results indicate that the use of a wireless sensor network for real-time sensing of substrate water status, combined with precise information on the effects of water availability levels on plants, is an effective tool for precision irrigation management of greenhouse soilless basil.

In molte aree litoranee dell'Italia meridionale è presente il problema della elevata salinità dell'acqua di falda, il cui utilizzo per l'irrigazione determina la salinizzazione dei terreni, con effetti negativi sulle produzioni. Per limitare il rischio dei danni da salinità sulle colture è necessario adottare strategie agronomiche appropriate la cui efficacia dipende anche dalla risposta delle diverse specie alla salinità. In letteratura sono noti i parametri di tolleranza alla salinità delle principali specie coltivate, ma sono mancanti per molte specie minori come la ruchetta selvatica, la cui coltivazione nelle aree interessate dalla salinità è in crescita. Pertanto, è stata svolta una ricerca per individuare i parametri di tolleranza alla salinità di due genotipi di ruchetta: Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC e D. muralis (L.) DC.La ricerca è stata eseguita nel periodo primaverile del 2007 e 2008 a Policoro (MT) in tunnel in PVC. La ruchetta è stata seminata in vasi di plastica contenenti 50 dm3 di una miscela (9:1) di terreno limoso argilloso e torba bruna e, dopo l'emergenza, è stato effettuato il diradamento lasciando 5 piante di ruchetta per ogni vaso. Per ogni genotipo sono stati confrontati sei livelli di conducibilità elettrica dell'estratto di pasta satura del terreno (ECe pari a 1 - 2,1 - 3,4 - 5,3 - 8,5 e 12,3 dS m-1), ottenuti miscelando al terreno, prima della semina, quantità opportune di NaCl e CaCl2 1:1. I vasi sono stati disposti secondo il piano sperimentale a split plot con quattro ripetizioni.L'irrigazione è stata eseguita con acqua di falda avente la conducibilità elettrica di 0,5 dS m-1. In ogni anno sono state eseguite 3 raccolte e sono stati rilevati i principali parametri produttivi e biometrici (produzione commerciabile, numero di foglie per pianta, peso medio e contenuto di sostanza secca delle foglie, superficie fogliare.La D. tenuifolia ha fornito la produzione del 47,3% più elevata rispetto alla D. muralis (in media 42,8 contro 29,1 g pianta-1). All'aumentare della salinità è stata registrata una progressiva riduzione della produzione commerciabile e dei parametri biometrici delle foglie, mentre il contenuto di sostanza secca è aumentato. In particolare, tra il livello più basso di salinità a quello più elevato, la produzione è passata da 57,2 e 42,4 g pianta-1 a 17 e 8,8 g pianta-1, rispettivamente per D. tenuifolia e D. muralis. Entrambe i genotipi si collocano tra le specie mediamente sensibili la salinità, secondo il modello di tolleranza alla salinità di Maas e Hoffman (1977). Tuttavia, D. tenuifolia risulta più tollerante della D. muralis, presentando rispettivamente una soglia critica pari a 1,7 e 1,3 dS m-1 e una pendenza pari a 6,4 e 7,2% m dS-1. La riduzione di produzione conseguente all'aumento di salinità si è manifestata per la diminuzione in maggior misura della dimensione delle foglie e, in secondo luogo, del loro numero.

The increasing availability of low-cost and reliable substrate moisture sensors offers interesting perspectives for rational and automatic rrigation management of soilless greenhouse crops and for research on plant water relations. The knowledge of the effects of different substrate volumetric water content (VWC) levels on plant growth is crucial for the determination of proper irrigation set-points. An experiment was conducted to assess the effects of different VWC levels on soilless tomato growth and water relations. Tomato plants were grown in a greenhouse in perlite bags. An automatic irrigation system used substrate moisture sensors to control irrigation solenoid valves, in order to keep growing media at four different VWC levels (0.15, 0.20, 0.25 and 0.30 m3?m-3). The system was able to get the substrate VWC at the desired different set-points. Substrate water potential was monitored during the experiment using tensiometers. The four VWC levels resulted, respectively, in a mean substrate water potential of -130, -101, -42 and -34 hPa. Plant growth was similar for plants grown at 0.30 and 0.25 m3?m-3 in terms of leaf area, fresh and dry weight, with higher values than plants grown at 0.20 and 0.15 m3?m-3. Plant water status was affected by the VWC level in the substrate, with higher and similar values of total leaf water potential for plants grown at the two highest VWC levels thanthose grown at lower VWC. The most severe effects of water stress were observed on plants grown at 0.15 m3?m-3 which showed the lowest leaf relative water content (respectively 64.4% vs 84.8% at higher VWC levels) and membrane stability index (respectively 68.6% vs 83.9% at higher VWC levels). The water retention curve and hydraulic conductivity analysis performed on the perlite substrate used in this experiment revealed little or no available water below a VWC of about 0.15 m3?m-3. However, plants grown at 0.15 m3?m-3, were able to uptake water from the growing media and thus to survive, although showing reduced growth and symptoms of water stress. Results seem to confirm that soilless growing media generally hold easily available water in a matric potential range from 0 to -100 hPa, with the majority of free available water present between matric potentials of 0 to -50 hPa.

In literature, the parameters of salinity tolerance of the main cultivated species are known, but are missingfor many minor species such as wild rocket, whose cultivation in many areas of southern Italy affectedby salinity is growing. Therefore, a research has been carried out i) to evaluate the response to salinityin water use, water use efficiency, yield characteristics and morfological features, and ii) identify thesalinity tolerance parameters of two genotypes of wild rocket: Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC and D. muralis(L.) DC. The study was carried out in the spring of 2007 and 2008 in Policoro (MT), southern Italy, underunheated plastic greenhouse conditions. Wild rocket was sown in plastic pots containing 20 dm3 of soil.For each genotype, six soil salinity levels were compared, obtained by accurately mixing before sowingthe soil with 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.5 and 5.5 g dm-3 of NaCl + CaCl2 1:1 (on a weight basis). Irrigation wasperformed with fresh water having electrical conductivity of 0.5 dS m-1. In each year, 3 harvests wereperformed; water use and the main production and plant growth parameters were recorded. D. tenuifoliaprovided a yield 47.3% higher than D. muralis. By rising salinity, progressive decline in marketable yieldand growth of the leaves was recorded, while the dry matter content increased. The increase in salinityhas led to the progressive reduction of water use in both genotypes. From moderate salinity values (about5.5 dS m-1), the reduction in yield water use efficiency as a result of increased salinity has been observed.In addition, salinity reduced specific leaf area and increased leaf succulence. Both genotypes rank amongmoderately salt sensitive species, according to Maas and Hoffman's model (1977). However, D. tenuifolia,with a critical threshold of 1.98 dS m-1 and a slope of 6.61% m dS-1, showed a slightly higher tolerancethan D. muralis (threshold 1.34 dS m-1 and slope 7.25% m dS-1). Reduction in yield due to salinity occurredmainly for the decrease in leaf size and, secondly, number of leaves.

A ratio of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) to reference evapotranspiration (ETo)determines a crop coefficient (Kc) value, which is related to vegetation growth andspecific crop phenological development. The determination of Kc is important forpredicting crop irrigation needs using meteorological data from weather stations. Theobjective of the research was to determine growth-stage-specific Kc and crop water usefor celery and fennel using the experimental data from C.D.S. 'E. Pantanelli' ofUniversity Aldo Moro of Bari, located in the countryside of Policoro (MT), southern Italy.Two weighing lysimeters, consisted of undisturbed 4 m2 area of 1.5 m depth of soilmonoliths, were utilized to measure crop water use. The lysimeters were located in thecenter of a 0.5 ha field of square form. Water use was measured on a daily basis. Inaddition, daily reference evapotranspiration (ETo) was computed by the Penman-Monteith equation, utilizing the weather data collected at the agro-meteorologicalstation near the experimental field. Watering was provided with drip method andscheduled to keep soil water content in the root zone under optimal growing conditions(irrigating at 20% of available water depletion and restoring 100% of the ETc measureddaily by lysimeters). The length of crop cycle was 110 and 117 days for celery, and 93and 135 days for fennel, in the 1st and 2nd year, respectively. For celery, the total ETcamounted to 231.5 and 313.3 mm in the 1st and 2nd year, respectively, and daily Kcranged between 0.4 and 1.4. For two cultivars of fennel, whose growing cycle tookplace at different times of the year (August-November 'Conero', and September-February 'Trevi'), the total ETc was equal to 311.7 mm for 'Conero' and 249.8 mm for'Trevi'. The daily Kc varied between 0.4 and 1.9 for 'Conero' and between 0.5 and 1.7for 'Trevi'. Specific Kc values across the growing season were determined based on theKc curves that represent the distribution of Kc over time throughout the season. Hence,it can be highlighted that the values of Kc corresponding to the three typicalphenological stages (initial, mid-growth, final) of celery were about 10% higher thanthose reported in FAO 56 Irrigation and Drainage Paper.The Kc was modelled as a function of days after planting and growing degree days.The later could be more useful for practical applications since reduces the necessity offrequent field observations of phenological phases. The development of regionallybased and growth-stage specific Kc curves helps in irrigation management andprovides a tool for a better water use in arid and semi-arid areas of the Mediterraneanregion.

Salinity causes yield reductions if threshold levels are exceeded, while it can cause the deterioration of some qualitative parameters and/or the improvement of others. Two years (2000-2001, 2006-2007) research was carried out to evaluate the effect of water quality on yield and quality of fennel, a vegetable very common in Apulia region. We compared two types of soil and two sodium absorption ratio of irrigation water obtained by dissolving in distilled water NaCl + CaCl2 (1:1) or only NaCl, and four electrical conductivity of water of 0.7 (control), 4, 8 and 12 dS m(-1). The soil type does not show any noticeable effect on the tested parameters. The salt type influenced the plant development and the total soluble solids contained in the bulbs. The plant height, the leaf and the bulb weight were, respectively, 6, 11 and 21% higher in NaCl + CaCl2 treatment as compared to NaCl one. The plant height, the leaf and the bulb weight dropped, respectively, by 33, 49 and 71%, shifting from 0.7 to 12 dS m(-1) salinity treatments. The dry matter content and total soluble solids increased with rising salinity. In fact, shifting from the control to the more saline treatment, the leaves and the bulbs dry matter increased, respectively, by 15 and 13%, and total soluble solids increased by 17%. Moreover, the increase in salinity favoured the production of flattened bulbs. The application of the Maas and Hoffman model to salinity response confirms the ranking of this species among moderately salt sensitive species, even though the critical threshold was the same for NaCl and NaCl + CaCl2 treatments (1.26 dS m(-1)), while the slope was higher in NaCl treatment (14.24% m dS(-1)) than NaCl + CaCl2 (10.39% m dS(-1)).