Major concerns are arising on the expansion of wildland–urban interfaces defined as zones where infrastructures and other man-made systems interact with undeveloped areas. Wildland–urban interfaces create an environment in which fire can easily spread from forest fuels to human settlements. In this context, there is a need to prevent fire spread by determining the sound allocation of fuel treatment (fuel removal). To this end, the Spatial Allocation Index was developed as a streamlined approach to determine where and what type of forest areas may be eligible for fuel removal in terms of fire suppression. This approach was developed as a case study example using forest landscapes located in the province of Taranto (Apulia region) in southern Italy. By using geostatistical techniques, we scaled up 210 data points of plot-level fuel load and developed maps for different forest types. These spatial predictions were combined with other landscape-level variables such as population density, urban density, and road density. Through our modelling approach we were able to determine the fuel model types and spatial allocations of wildland areas that are likely to be treated by fuel removal. Our results suggest that the predominant forest typology requiring treatment in the study area is the Mediterranean maquis (shrub-land), which covers 44 % of the wildland–urban interface landscape. The areas on the map where the Spatial Allocation Index reaches its maximum value are those with the highest priority in terms of fuel removal; i.e., the highest number of people, houses, and roads benefitting from wildfire suppression. By adopting this streamlined approach, forest managers and decision makers may avail of a fast and effective tool to improve efforts in landscape management and budgeting of financial resources.

Gli ecosistemi naturali rappresentano un elemento di vitale importanza per il benessere e la salute dell’uomo, grazie anche alla capacità di fornire una serie di servizi cosiddetti “ecosistemici”, quali ad esempio: assorbimento di anidride carbonica, approvvigionamento idrico, purificazione dell’aria, formazione del suolo, controllo e regolazione delle condizioni climatiche, conservazione della biodiversità (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Negli ultimi decenni, la crescita delle attività antropiche ha determinato una serie di problematiche ed effetti negativi sul mantenimento di questi servizi con conseguenze talvolta drammatiche. Il degrado dei servizi forniti dagli ecosistemi rappresenta una vera e propria perdita del “capitale naturale” di cui l’uomo può disporre (Tallis et al. 2008). A questo riguardo, il Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) concentra l’attenzione sulla complessità delle interazioni tra i sistemi naturali ed i sistemi antropici e, in particolare, sui benefici ambientali, sociali ed economici derivanti dal mantenimento dei servizi ecosistemici (MEA 2005). Uno dei temi emergenti in materia di servizi ecosistemici riguarda l’ottimizzazione nello spazio e nel tempo dei benefici derivanti dai diversi servizi, es. stoccaggio di carbonio nella biomassa; salvaguardia degli habitat naturali; conservazione del paesaggio e della biodiversità. A questo riguardo, il MEA introduce il termine trade-off ad indicare il legame di mutuo contrasto e/o sinergia tra due o più servizi ecosistemici (Rodriguez et al., 2006). Ad esempio, l’attivazione di misure ambientali volte alla produzione di biomassa per finalità energetiche (i.e., impianti forestali a ciclo breve) si pone spesso in contrasto con l’obiettivo di conservare la biodiversità di specie animali e vegetali e di preservare i principali cicli biogeochimici (Raudsepp-Hearne et al., 2010). Di contro, misure basate sulla sola conservazione della biodiversità possono compromettere il raggiungimento di determinati target di accumulo di carbonio secondo quanto previsto dalle Convenzioni Internazionali sui cambiamenti climatici (Nelson et al., 2009). Una gestione sostenibile del “capitale naturale” dovrebbe pertanto tener conto del trade-off tra i diversi servizi ecosistemici, favorendo azioni concrete di mitigazione dei contrasti e l’individuazione di porzioni di territorio, cosiddette aree win-win, nelle quali è possibile incentivare un insieme di servizi ecosistemici (Dailye-Matson, 2008). L’analisi dei trade-off richiede pertanto la predisposizione di nuovi approcci scientifici e modelli innovativi in grado di quantificare il rapporto di contrasto e/o sinergia tra servizi ecosistemici (es. biomassa vs. biodiversità) e di prevedere le conseguenze di determinate scelte di pianificazione e gestione ambientale a diverse scale spaziali e temporali (Benayas et al., 2009; Corry e Lafortezza, 2007).

Research on restorative environments has frequently showed a more positive impact of natural vs. built environments on human well being. However, the restorative potential of different typologies of nature has been less investigated. A still open issue is the role of biodiversity in the restoration process. This study compared five typologies of urban green spaces possessing increasing levels of biodiversity: An urban plaza with green elements, an urban park, a pinewood, a botanical garden, and a peri-urban natural area. One hundred and twenty-five residents of Padua, Italy, filled in a questionnaire that measured length and frequency of visits to the green spaces, activities performed there, perceived restorativeness, and affective qualities of the place, self-reported benefits of the visit. Results showed a positive relation between biodiversity in the settings, perceived restorative properties, and self-reported benefits. Perceived restorativeness and affective qualities also mediate the relation between exposure to nature and self-reported benefits. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The urban heat island (UHI) of Milan (Italy) was analyzed by means of an Energy Balance Model calibrated for four different sites representative of an urban park, the UHI plateau and the UHI peak of the selected town. The model was driven by weather stations data and parameterized as a function of land use, urban morphology, human activities and soil hydrology. A run of the model on the 1981–2014 period was carried out on four hourly datasets. Results provided useful statistics of energy balance termsand the climate risk of extreme thermal events (sensible heat fraction of the total turbulent flux H% exceeding specific thresholds). Results for summer (June– August trimester) show that the mitigation of climate risk of high values of H% given by the urban park is more effective for June than for July and August.We also discuss the relevance of enhanced soil water reservoirs in urban green areas to improve the mitigating effect of urban vegetation on UHI by both the substitution of sensible heat fluxes with latent heat ones and the increase of the shading effect of tree canopies.

One of the most important environmental issues in Europe is the expansion of wildland-urban interfaces (WUIs) and how this trend may affect the occurrence of wildfires. Land use changes, the abandonment of farmland, and reduced grazing has led to an increase in forested areas with an accumulation and continuity of surface fuels available for combustion. Policies based exclusively on extensive fire suppression have become ineffective in different parts of Europe. To reduce the threat of damaging and costly wildfires, European countries must develop integrated fuel management programs. This approach has proven to be one of the most cost-effective for preventing wildfires and reducing economic loss. To this end, we have conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis to estimate how much fuel must be treated to determine fuel load removals with the lowest cost per hectare of unaffected WUIs threatened by wildfires in southern Italy (Apulia region). The analysis was carried out in three stages: (i) simulation of fire behavior in different fuel load reduction and wind direction scenarios; (ii) estimation of WUIs affected by wildfires within the study landscape; and (iii) the application of a cost-effectiveness ratio. Our results highlight the need to provide a method to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of fuel removal given the increasing number and extent of WUIs in the Mediterranean landscape of Europe. Optimizing the cost-effectiveness analysis of fuel removals offers the basis for appropriately assessing wildfire prevention and budgeting financial resources. Further, this method may be readily applied toward allocating any type of intervention in landscape management. © 2016 by the authors.

The dramatic increase of fire hazard in wildland–urban interfaces (WUIs) has required more detailed fuel management programs to preserve ecosystem functions and human settlements. Designing effective fuel treatment strategies allows to achieve goals such as resilient landscapes, fire-adapted communities, and ecosystem response. Therefore, obtaining background information on forest fuel parameters and fuel accumulation patterns has become an important first step in planning fuel management interventions. Site-specific fuel inventory data enhance the accuracy of fuel management planning and help forest managers in fuel management decision-making. We have customized four fuel models for WUIs in southern Italy, starting from forest classes of land-cover use and adopting a hierarchical clustering approach. Furthermore, we provide a prediction of the potential fire behavior of our customized fuel models using FlamMap 5 under different weather conditions. The results suggest that fuel model IIIP (Mediterranean maquis) has the most severe fire potential for the 95th percentile weather conditions and the least severe potential fire behavior for the 85th percentile weather conditions. This study shows that it is possible to create customized fuel models directly from fuel inventory data. This achievement has broad implications for land managers, particularly forest managers of the Mediterranean landscape, an ecosystem that is susceptible not only to wildfires but also to the increasing human population and man-made infrastructures. © 2015, Springer Science+Business Media New York.

Context and matrix have received increasing importance in understanding and empowering local socioecological sustainability in rural communities. The ecosystem services approach, in particular, has provided innovative tools and possibilities to weigh, compare, and balance various services and goods that are made available in different habitats and land cover types in a landscape continuum. This study includes large-landscape case studies in Sweden, Canada, and Chile (the Vilhelmina, Prince Albert, and Araucarias del Alto Malleco Model Forests). Despite different premises, the case studies share fundamental aspects of rural community sustainability problems and solutions, e.g., marginalized indigenous peoples, dependence of natural resources, and the importance of small-scale and site-specifi c livelihood and manufacturing of natural resources. In addition, the study sites represent a comprehensive gradient of duration and degree of land-use impact and, hence, the need for landscape restoration. In an ecosystem services context these case studies allow for multifunctional, scale-independent and spatially explicit assessments of good and services from alpine, agricultural, and forest habitats. Opportunities and barriers for sustainability, from various perspectives, are explored using large-landscape modeling, planning, and scenario analyses.

Assessing forest stand conditions in urban and peri-urban areas is essential to support ecosystem service planning and management, as most of the ecosystem services provided are a consequence of forest stand characteristics. However, collecting data for assessing forest stand conditions is time consuming and labor intensive. A plausible approach for addressing this issue is to establish a relationship between in situ measurements of stand characteristics and data from airborne laser scanning (LiDAR). In this study we assessed forest stand volume and above-ground biomass (AGB) in a broadleaved urban forest, using a combination of LiDAR-derived metrics, which takes the form of a forest allometric model. We tested various methods for extracting proxies of basal area (BA) and mean stand height (H) from the LiDAR point-cloud distribution and evaluated the performance of different models in estimating forest stand volume and AGB. The best predictors for both models were the scale parameters of the Weibull distribution of all returns (except the first) (proxy of BA) and the 95th percentile of the distribution of all first returns (proxy of H). The R2 were 0.81 (p < 0.01) for the stand volume model and 0.77 (p < 0.01) for the AGB model with a RMSE of 23.66 m3 ha-1 (23.3%) and 19.59 Mg ha-1 (23.9%), respectively. We found that a combination of two LiDAR-derived variables (i.e., proxy of BA and proxy of H), which take the form of a forest allometric model, can be used to estimate stand volume and above-ground biomass in broadleaved urban forest areas. Our results can be compared to other studies conducted using LiDAR in broadleaved forests with similar methods. © 2014 by the authors.

Key message: This study developed and tested models to predict the belowground biomass and root/shoot ratio using aboveground field measures. The predictive power of such indirect measurement is useful for a rapid and reliable assessment of the biomass of the Mediterranean species. Context: Forest biomass estimation has been simplified by the availability of indirect methodologies for automatic measuring. However, most of the information on forest root systems is largely unexplored due to the difficulty in estimating belowground biomass (BGB) at large scale. A plausible approach to investigating forest BGB is to establish a relationship between a number of dendrometric parameters related to the aboveground vegetation (AGB) (e.g., tree diameter and height) and the belowground component of the total biomass. Aims: This work presents findings for indirect measurements of BGB in the typical Mediterranean landscapes focusing on sclerophyllous vegetation, specifically Phillyrea latifolia L. The purpose of the present study is twofold: (a) to develop a model explaining the BGB distribution of P. latifolia based on field data for dendrometric parameters, and (b) to understand how the ratio between BGB and AGB varies according to stem diameter as a proxy of plant growth. Methods: A total of 50 P. latifolia plants were randomly selected in the study areas and considered for excavation. Individual plants were analyzed to determine AGB and BGB development. A number of models were developed and tested to predict the BGB and root/shoot ratio using aboveground field measures. Allometric equations were employed to predict the AGB and BGB and relative partitioning in the Phillyrea community. Results: Models for P. latifolia AGB and BGB estimation that include crown diameter and stem height measures augment the models’ predictive power. When used alone, the predictive power of the root collar diameter appears to be overestimated, while its effect is stronger for a subset of observations with larger crown diameter and stem height. The root/shoot ratio values of plant species typically related to the Mediterranean context seem to be largely superior to the ratio values of trees and forests. Conclusions: The model is ideally suited to incorporate indirectly measured tree height for a rapid and reliable assessment of the biomass of single Mediterranean species. Further research might include replication of the same studies in different geographic areas of the Mediterranean and in-depth analyses of AGB. © 2015, INRA and Springer-Verlag France.

I boschi e le risorse forestali in genere hanno avuto nella storia del nostro pianeta e della civiltà umana un ruolo fondamentale. L’atmosfera come la conosciamo oggi, respirabile ed adatta alla vita degli animali, è stata raggiunta solo nel Carbonifero grazie alla grande diffusione delle piante terrestri che avvenne in quel periodo. Le piante produssero grandi quantità di ossigeno come sottoprodotto della funzione clorofilliana necessaria al loro sostentamento. Questa produzione di ossigeno, unitamente al seppellimento di grandi quantità di sostanza organica contenente carbonio prima presenti nell’aria come anidride carbonica, permise a partire da circa 350 milioni di anni fa, di arrivare al 21% di ossigeno libero che oggi caratterizza l’atmosfera. Le foreste sono state, inoltre, un centro importante per l’evoluzione delle civiltà umane fornendo materiali legnosi e non legnosi necessari al riscaldamento, alla costruzione di utensili, attrezzature ed abitazioni, al sostentamento, all’alimentazione e alla cura del corpo. Al tempo stesso i boschi sono stati luoghi dove si sono sviluppati miti, leggende e i primi riti religiosi che hanno caratterizzato le nostre civiltà nel corso dei secoli. Nella cultura corrente è acquisito che gli alberi e le risorse forestali possiedano un’ampia ed articolata multifunzionalità che comprende la fornitura di materiali e di servizi, ma che abbraccia anche la sfera del benessere. Nell’ambito di questa multifunzionalità un ruolo importante che si sta evidenziando nel corso degli ultimi due decenni è quello relativo alla possibilità di contrastare i processi di cambiamento climatico determinati dal rilascio di grandi quantità di gas serra, prevalentemente anidride carbonica, e di limitare i processi di riscaldamento dell’atmosfera (global change). Si tratta quindi di svolgere una funzione essenziale alla nostra stessa sopravvivenza. La crescente preoccupazione della comunità scientifica per i fenomeni legati al cambiamento climatico e al riscaldamento dell’atmosfera, potenziati dalle attività umane legate soprattutto all’uso dei combustibili fossili e alle trasformazioni di uso delle coperture del suolo, ha determinato la necessità di una presa di coscienza anche da parte dell’opinione pubblica generale rispetto alla possibilità di assumere comportamenti individuali congrui. Tale possibilità passa attraverso il potenziamento dei livelli di informazione attinenti ai fattori di regolazione degli scambi atmosferici in grado di influenzare gli elementi del clima globale, in particolare temperatura dell’aria e il regime delle precipitazioni. Scopo di questo volume è quello di contribuire a questa informazione per gli aspetti relativi agli ecosistemi forestali, componenti dei paesaggi e della biosfera cui la scienza riconosce un ruolo chiave nella regolazione del bilancio del carbonio, così nel mantenimento della biodiversità e della identità culturale dei popoli della terra. Per contribuire, in definitiva, a formare nell’opinione pubblica, la capacità critica per discriminare tra atteggiamenti di consumo etico e sostenibile come alternativa a quelli “predatori”. Tra gli ecosistemi forestali, i boschi in particolare, sono in grado di conservare anche per periodi di tempo relativamente lunghi il carbonio assimilato, soprattutto nelle strutture somatiche delle loro componenti caratterizzanti (gli alberi) e nel suolo forestale. Inoltre l’uso dei prodotti legnosi consente di mantenere “bloccate” considerevoli quantità di carbonio per tutto il ciclo di vita delle opere e dei manufatti. Gli ecosistemi forestali, quindi, nel ciclo geochimico ed in quello biogeochimico del carbonio, svolgono contemporaneamente le funzioni di pool di scambio e di pool di riserva. La specie umana è sempre stata in qualche modo dipendente dagli ecosistemi forestali, sia attraverso l’impiego dei beni materiali prodotti dal b

The literature on human experience in green environments had widely showed the positive outcomes of getting in contact with nature. This study addresses the issue of whether urban residents’ evaluations of urban and peri-urban natural settings and the positive outcomes deriving from contact with such settings vary as a function of their biodiversity. A field study assessed benefits and subjective well-being reported by urban residents visiting four different typologies of green spaces, selected on the basis of urban forestry expert criteria according to a 2 × 2 factorial design. The biodiversity level (low vs. high) was crossed with the setting location (urban vs. peri-urban) as follows: urban squares with green elements, urban parks, pinewood forest plantations, and peri-urban natural protected areas. A questionnaire including measures of length and frequency of visits, perceived restorativeness, and self-reported benefits of the visit to the green spaces was administered in situ to 569 residents of four Italian medium-to-large size cities: Bari, Florence, Rome and Padua. Results showed the positive role of biodiversity upon perceived restorative properties and self-reported benefits for urban and peri-urban green spaces. Consistently with the hypotheses reported herein, a mediation role of perceived restorativeness in the relation between experience of natural settings (i.e. higher level of biodiversity) and self-reported benefits was found. The design and management implications of the findings are discussed.

The last decades have seen a major shift in the planning and development of ecosystem and landscape management in Europe. First of all, in line with international developments, the life-support-services of ecosystems have come to the fore through the application of the concept of ‘ecosystem services’. Secondly, drawing on the principles of landscape ecology linkages between ecosystems are being stressed through the concept of ‘ecological networks’. Thirdly there is increasing recognition of the beneficial relationship between access to green space and improved public ‘health and well-being’. These services and relationships are being linked together in both academic literature and policy practice in what is termed the Green Infrastructure (GI) approach. GI networks it is argued are discernible at different scales, and across urban, peri-urban and rural landscapes. Furthermore GI is considered as supportive of ecological processes whilst simultaneously contributing to better human health and well-being. Moreover, especially in urban regions, GI is being placed at the same level as other essential urban infrastructure. Recognising these developments the authors have devised an updated conceptual framework for the development, management, and analysis of GI networks by focusing on contemporary drivers nested together at the territorial level and with a prominent role for temporal considerations. The latter has hitherto been only weakly presented in the GI discourse. Development of the conceptual model has been informed by reference to examples drawn from across Europe. Finally, directions are provided for future research, and for developing and delivering GI in the emerging context of ecosystem services and human well-being.

This review presents a multidisciplinary framework for integrating the ecological, regulatory, procedural and technical aspects of forest management for fi res prevention under Mediterranean environments. The aims are to: i) provide a foreground of wildfi re scenario; ii) illustrate the theoretical background of forest fuel management; iii) describe the available fuel management techniques and mechanical operations for fi re prevention in forest and wildland-urban interfaces, with exemplifi cation of case-studies; iv) allocate fi re prevention activities under the hierarchy of forest planning. The review is conceived as an outline commentary discussion targeted to professionals, technicians and government personnel involved in forestry and environmental management

Forest landscapes are fundamental components of the living environment and consist of complex assemblages of forest and non-forest elements whose arrangement reflects, in part, the magnitude, intensity, and type of management. Because forests change across regions and scales, a variety of approaches have been proposed to support research and applicable goals. The most promising way to analyze forest landscapes is through the landscape ecological approach, which is the study of ecological patterns and processes in heterogeneous, mostly human-modified, landscapes. In this paper, we analyze the role of landscape ecology in the context of forest landscapes. We discuss the main factors related to forest management which may affect landscape composition and configuration by referencing examples from the Mediterranean landscapes of Europe. Finally, we discuss the key issues for incorporating landscape ecological principles into forest planning and management and provide directions for future research in the emerging context of ecosystem services.

Over recent decades, afforestation and reforestation efforts have been conducted in and around European cities for environmental and socioeconomic reasons. These efforts have led to acquire knowledge of the key components of forests (e.g., above-ground biomass [AGB], biodiversity) in relation to forest growth with implications for ecosystem management. Our hypothesis is that urban forest plantation diversity and above-ground biomass significantly change during stand development. In this study, we chose three (young to older) forest stands (three sub-plots for each stand age) to explore the relationships between AGB, tree biodiversity and community structure in the urban forest of Parco Nord Milano, Milan, Italy. Results showed that the community structure and plant species composition differed among the stands. During forest growth AGB significantly increased, whereas the Richness (S), Shannon Diversity index (H), Shannon Evenness (J) and total density values decreased. Interestingly, the AGB was positively correlated with tree height and density at species and stand scale, but was negatively correlated with total density at stand scale. As a result, we found changes in species composition. The level of dynamic competition did not significantly differ among species in stands younger than 25 years, but increased with intraspecific competition among single trees over time. Our results further suggest that disturbance (i.e., thinning) does not largely affect above-ground carbon accumulation, but over the long-term likely influences biodiversity during forest growth. Predicting AGB–biodiversity relationships could represent a supportive method for improving management services and increasing biodiversity in urban and peri-urban forest areas. © 2016 Elsevier B.V.

Green spaces have positive effects on human well-being and quality of life in cities. So far, studies in this fi eld mainly compared preferences for, and outcomes of contact with, natural vs. built environments. Less attention has been given to the study of the psychological effects of contact with green spaces differing in their degree of naturalness. This paper thus aims at understanding the relation between ecological (e.g., level of naturalness) and psychological factors (e.g., perceived restorativeness) in shaping evaluations of different urban and peri-urban green spaces. Five different typologies of green space have been identifi ed in the city of Bari (southern Italy) and Padua (northern Italy), ranging from minimum (i.e., high level of man-made elements) to maximum levels of naturalness (i.e., low level of man-made elements). A set of pictures of the different urban green space typologies were shown to fi fty undergraduate students of each city, and then measures of perceived restorativeness were taken. Results show that perceived restorativeness is the highest in peri-urban green spaces, and increases signifi cantly as a function of the level of naturalness.

Rapid growth of many cities in Europe in recent decades has resulted in the expansion of human settlements spreading into fire-prone landscapes. Wildfires are increasingly impinging upon human populations because of anthropogenic changes to the global fire cycle. Large investments are therefore required to prevent fires from spreading into urban areas to protect human life and reduce property damage. Naturally, prioritizing fuel management by identifying sites where the greatest number of people are exposed to wildfires is often a challenge for governments because of limited resources. Herein, we offer an approach to quantify management priorities and allocate interventions (i.e., fuel removals from forests) in interfaces between urban and wildland areas threatened by wildfires. For this purpose, an indicator for prioritizing management interventions was developed by integrating social, economic, and ecological factors. This indicator was applied to southern Italy as a case example, where fires have been increasing in both magnitude and frequency. Our results highlight the need to prioritize fuel removals in densely populated landscapes in terms of maximizing the number of people exposed to wildfire suppression per dollar spent on fuel removal. More broadly, we suggest that this approach form the basis for wildfire suppression in urban regions across the globe and be readily applied toward allocating any type of management intervention in landscape management.

Wildfi res are increasingly impinging upon human populations because of anthropogenic changes to the global fi re cycle. Large investments are therefore required to prevent fi re from spreading into urban areas to protect human life and reduce property damage. However, prioritizing fuel management by identifying sites where the greatest number of people are affected by wildfi res is often a challenge for governments because of limited resources. Here, we show how to quantify management priorities and allocate interventions (i.e., fuel removals from forests) in interfaces between urban and wildland areas threatened by wildfi res. We developed a landscape-level management priority index which integrates social, economic, and ecological factors. We apply this method to southern Italy as a case example, where fi res have been increasing in both magnitude and frequency. Our results highlight the need to prioritize fuel removals in densely populated landscapes in terms of maximizing the number of people affected by wildfi re suppression per dollar spent on fuel removal. More broadly, we suggest that this approach could form the basis of wildfi re suppression in urban regions across the globe and can be applied easily towards allocating any type of management intervention in any ecosystem.

Green spaces have positive effects on human well-being and quality of life in cities. So far, studies in this field mainly compared preferences for, and outcomes of contact with, natural vs. built environments. Less attention has been given to the study of the psychological effects of contact with green spaces differing in their degree of naturalness. This paper thus aims at understanding the relation between ecological (e.g., level of naturalness) and psychological factors (e.g., perceived restorativeness) in shaping evaluations of different urban and peri-urban green spaces. Five typologies of green space have been identified in the city of Bari (southern Italy), ranging from minimum (i.e., high level of man-made elements) to maximum levels of naturalness (i.e., low level of man-made elements). A set of pictures of the different urban green space typologies was shown to fifty undergraduate students of the University of Bari, and then measures of perceived restorativeness were taken. Results show that perceived restorativeness is the highest in peri-urban green spaces, and increases significantly as a function of the level of naturalness.

Green spaces have positive effects on human well-being and quality of life in cities. So far, studies in this field mainly compared preferences for, and outcomes of contact with, natural vs. built environments. Less attention has been given to the study of the psychological effects of contact with green spaces differing in their degree of naturalness. This paper thus aims at understanding the relation between ecological (e.g., level of naturalness) and psychological factors (e.g., perceived restorativeness) in shaping evaluations of different urban and peri-urban green spaces. Five typologies of green space have been identified in the city of Bari (southern Italy), ranging from minimum (i.e., high level of man-made elements) to maximum levels of naturalness (i.e., low level of man-made elements). A set of pictures of the different urban green space typologies was shown to fifty undergraduate students of the University of Bari, and then measures of perceived restorativeness were taken. Results show that perceived restorativeness is the highest in peri-urban green spaces, and increases significantly as a function of the level of naturalness.

Sclerophyllous vegetation contributes to the formation of forest resources in the Mediterranean biome that in turn provides an important resource in terms of ecosystem services. Despite this, scientific knowledge of sclerophyllous vegetation, in particular with regard to their root systems, is fragmented. This review takes into account the research on below-ground sclerophyllous biomass in different contexts where there is a Mediterranean climate. In particular, the authors analyse the different investigative approaches used in studying roots, the main topics covered by research, and the relationships between root and shoot biomass. The review shows that there is a paucity of research on the root systems of sclerophyllous vegetation although there are examples of innovative technologies being applied to research questions. This review considers some key works in the literature, and provides useful information to address re-vegetation and reforestation programmes in the context of Mediterranean ecosystems.

Studies on the positive effects of contact with nature have been mainly conducted in European countries, North America, and Australia, whereas the experience of nature for people living in other countries is still to be adequately investigated. Investigation of the beneficial effects of nature is particularly important in dense urban areas characterized by heavy environmental stress-related problems, like crowding and noise, and for people suffering from income-related well-being inequalities. To contribute to filling this gap, the present study investigated the effects of contact with urban parks on well-being among residents in Bogotá, Colombia. A questionnaire was administered to an opportunistic sample of 398 respondents (300 of which were completed and used in the analyses) in parks located in three districts differing in socio-economic status. The residents of these districts were representative of the upper, middle, and lower income groups. The questions asked about the use of green areas and related psychological variables, such as human-nature interdependence, connectedness to nature, perceived restorative and affective qualities attributed to the park, emotions experienced, and overall well-being derived from the park experience. The results showed higher levels of well-being for people in the middle-income group and a relevant role of nature-related activities and psychological variables in explaining such beneficial outcomes. Differences in the mechanisms leading to well-being also emerged for the three income groups. Theoretical and practical implications of the study are discussed. © 2015 Elsevier B.V..

Current knowledge on the growth models of urban forest plantations several years after their establishment still remains poor and fragmentary. Furthermore few studies have assessed the growth of urban plantations on reclaimed land, such as brownfield sites. This paper assesses urban forest plantations in terms of tree height growth, crown width and vertical structural using as a case study tree inventory-data collected in an urban forest plantation (Parco Nord Milano, PNM northern Italy). In this research tree inventory-data was used to target the following objectives: (i) to develop a series of tree height-growth models and tree crown-width models for the main taxonomic units in the study-area; (ii) to analyze the temporal pattern of current increments of tree height; (iii) to assess the vertical stratification of tree crowns using a method developed by Latham et al. (1998). The results suggest that during the earlier stage after planting, trees reach high levels of growth (tree height and crown width) regardless of the taxonomic unit. Evidence is found to support a high level of spatial competition between individual trees of different taxonomic units in as little as 15-18 years. Competition between trees appears to be mainly affected by diametrical differentiation rather than hypsometric variation: trees grow more in diameter than in height. Furthermore a decrease in longitudinal growth was observed for most tree species while the radial growth tends to be constant over time. The research at PNM shows that in temperate climates this can be achieved in less than 30 years. We believe that these analyses could provide important data supporting the planning of new urban forest plantations on reclaimed land and inter-alia provide some answers to the questions around plantations growth evaluation and management.

Among ecological communities, insects are important bioindicators of fire disturbance due to their sensitivity to environmental change and habitat requirements. In this study, we explored the relationship between insect abundance and distance from the ignition point of fires over a two-year period in an oak-dominated forest located in Southern Italy. Using 18 pitfall traps along three transects (running from the interior to the exterior of the burnt area), 2556 insect specimens belonging to eight orders and 26 families were collected. We used analysis of variance and developed a number of regression models to determine the spatial and temporal responses of insect abundance to fire. In addition, a comparison was made between terrestrial Coleoptera and Lepidoptera and the results were used to explain the effects of forest fire on different taxa. In terms of spatial variation, we observed a significant difference between abundance of Coleoptera in burnt (0–300 m) and unburnt (300–600 m) locations with the highest level of abundance in the forest at the edge of the burnt area. For Lepidoptera, differences were not as significant. In terms of temporal variation, we observed significant differences between the abundance of Coleoptera in the two study years, both in burnt and unburnt locations, with the highest level of abundance in the second year after fire. For Lepidoptera the temporal differences were also significant. The two insect orders showed a contrasting pattern in terms of mean abundance values: the abundance of Coleoptera increased during the survey period, while the abundance of Lepidoptera decreased. Fire disturbance influences the short-term response of insect abundance with positive or negative effects depending on the ecological traits and habits of taxa. Understanding these effects is crucial in highly-modified ecosystems, such as the Mediterranean forests.

Research on urban forest governance is scarce, despite the current high level of interest in urban forestry. This paper addresses one of the main reasons for this scarcity – poor understanding of what governance is, and how it can be described. We propose a systematic approach to researching urban forest governance, based on a case study framework which provides a way to describe examples clearly, and to compare them robustly. The paper briefly reviews definitions and debates around governance, before using a descriptive definition as the basis for developing a framework. It then uses five examples from across Europe, to illustrate the use of the framework for describing urban forest governance. The analysis reflects on the experience of writing and sharing case studies, to distill out the framework as a research tool, and discusses issues arising from the application of the framework and the challenges of standardisation. The paper concludes with reflections on the role of this framework in stimulating comparisons while maintaining the flexibility to contribute to individual research needs and traditions.

Rapid expansion of urban built-up areas since the 1950s has led to the Milan region becoming one of the major metropolitan areas of Europe. This has been accompanied by significant structural changes to urban and peri-urban landscapes and fragmentation of formerly contiguous green corridors by the distribution of new urban forms such as housing and transport infrastructure. The need to address the loss of green space was first recognised by policy-makers at the end of the 1970s and in due course, this has led to new policies and laws. These policies included the introduction of the Milan metropolitan parks approach that, nowadays, is represented by numerous urban forests that have become the backbone of green infrastructure (GI) creation and management. In the last decades, a total of 10 000 hectares of new forests and green systems have been created. Boscoincittà and Parco Nord Milano are the best known examples of this approach aimed to redevelop the neighbourhoods of some suburbs of Milan to create multifunctional green spaces (forests, grasslands, wetlands, river corridor, and allotment gardens) in lands previously industrial or uncultivated. The creation and management of urban forests has become the backbone of GI creation and management in the Metropolitan Area of Milan. In recent decades, trends of land use change have been characterised by a rapid decrease in natural and agricultural areas and an increase in artificial and urban structures. Although the phenomenon is growing rapidly in this area, there is evidence of an opposite social and environmental trend highlighting the importance of GI positively affecting urban quality of life. Recent policies and management plans are dealing with this evidence by turning their attention to expanding green areas and infrastructure. The purpose of our investigation is to revisit effective measures designed to increase the quality and quantity of UGI in the metropolitan region under study. To this end, we assessed land use changes and described the potentialities and impacts of policies on such phenomena. The study analyses the main elements of UGI in the Italian context within the framework of the European Union Life + project called Emonfur, a research programme involving, inter alia, the establishment of an Urban Forest inventory and impact analysis of ecosystem services in the Metropolitan Area of Milan. Our research has allowed us to determine the current status of key sites by monitoring the policy and planning decisions that resulted in their development. We believe that such an analysis can pave the way to understand future land-use dynamics not only in northern Italy but in other metropolitan territories as well. © 2016 Landscape Research Group Ltd

Assessing the restorative potential of different types of urban and periurban green spaces. Urban and periurban green spaces play an important role in preserving environmental resources and naturalness, with positive effects on people’s health and well-being. In this context, the study aims to model the relationship between the main ecological and psychological factors (e.g., biodiversity, perceptions, attitudes, evaluations, behaviors, etc.) that are related to urban and periurban green spaces. We focused on the psychological benefits and the general well-being associated with the use of green spaces. We selected five typologies of green spaces in the city of Bari (southern Italy), characterized by different physical features (e.g., presence of natural and built up elements, total extent of the area, distance from urban centre, etc.). A questionnaire focusing on people’s experience in the environment (length and frequency of visits, activities performed, perceived restorativeness, affective qualities of the place, perceived well being during and after the visits) was administered to users of five green space typologies. Results show that the perceived restorative properties are associated to typological characteristics of urban green spaces. Results suggest a mediating role of perceived restorativeness and length of the visits on the perceived well-being. We conclude by discussing the implications of the study on urban policies in the context of sustainability.