Anticipating the European Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC), the Italian Government issued Legislative Decree n.152/99 which sets out rules for classifying the environmental status of national water bodies in order to achieve specific qualitative objectives by 2016. The most recent European Groundwater Directive (2006/118/EC), which was only recognized by Italy in early 2009 (Legislative Decree 30/09), requires such resources to be characterized from a qualitative standpoint and the risk of their being polluted by individual pollutants or groups of pollutants to be evaluated. This paper reports a simple methodology, based on easy-to-apply rules, for the rapid classification of groundwater, and the results of its application to the shallow aquifer of the plain of Tavoliere delle Puglie located in south Italy. Data collected during well-water monitoring campaigns carried out from 2002 to 2003 made it possible to assess the environmental status of the Tavoliere which, unfortunately, was found to be characterized by "significant anthropic pressures on quality and/or quantity of groundwater and necessitating specific improvement actions". © 2010 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

This paper presents a general methodology for processing bioclimatic data in the temporal domain. Two different methods are used to assess the presence of temporal trends in the time-series of bioclimatic indices at each mea- surement station. A preliminary stage checks for the statistical homogeneity in the data set and for the presence of serial autocorrelation in the data, applying the proper methods to remove these effects. The methodology has been applied to a case study in Apulia, Italy, using the popular De Martonne index as a bioclimatic indicator.

This paper presents a general methodology for processing bioclimatic data in the spatial domain whose main goal is to derive indications related to the moisture/dryness level of a region and provide water management authorities with information about its irrigation requirements. The methodology uses point-scale measurements of weather related data to perform a detailed analysis of the spatial behavior of the corresponding bioclimatic indicators at the continuous regional scale. The proposed methodology, although more demanding in terms of computation resources, gives more accurate results than standard approximate approaches available in current GIS packages. This methodology has been applied to a particular case study using the well known De Martonne index as a bioclimatic indicator.

This paper presents a software package for the automatic processing of bioclimatic data in the space and time domains whose final goal is to provide land and water management authorities with reliable information about the moisture/dryness level of a region and its water requirements. The current state of development of package is reported, presenting an example of application of the program to a specific case study.

Large-scale problems of water quality and water availability require knowledge of water travel times through the unsaturated zone and substances carried with it. A number of methods and devices are available for measuring the water content in soils but usually they are not usable with the rocks too and very few are the attempts to verify their applicability.In applying the devices for water content estimation in rocks, the main difficulty is related to the installation of the probes. The installation procedure have to ensure a good contact between the rock and the sensor in order to reduce the uncertainty due to the gap effects.In this study a non-traditional method, known as electrical impedance spectrometry (EIS), was used. Using the new apparatus Z-meter, the electrical impedance in complex form and its changes were monitored in order to verify the suitability of the device with the rock. One kind of stainless steel probes have been installed into samples of calcarenite, a sedimentary rock coming from a quarry located in Canosa (South of Italy). The relationship between water content and resistance and between the reactance and the rock characteristics, such as texture, structure, etc., were investigated within a frequency range from 100Hz to 10000Hz, by using water with different electrical conductivity (EC) values. The experimentation was performed in environment with controlled temperature, due to the influence of temperature variation on all indirect moisture measurement methods.The experimental tests have been performed three times using exactly the same experimental set up, in order to check the repeatability of the data. The results allowed to define the calibration curves at different EC values for the calcarenite. This represent an important result because defines the possibility of using a new device, the Z-meter, to measure the rock water content by overcoming the issue of the gap effect that causes uncertainty of the measured values.This opens new scenarios linked to the possibility to monitor in situ flow and transport processes, that occur in the vadose zone constituted from rocks, measures rarely performed until now.

The water content (q) of the subsoil is an important parameter affecting all the processesthat occur in the vadose zone, playing a key role in the infiltration, aquifer recharge, andflow and transport of water and substances, as well as groundwater storage. Although thevadose zone is usually considered constituted of soil, it may also be comprised of rock.In the latter case, q cannot yet be operationally measured despite its unquestionableimportance. The aim of the present work was therefore to investigate the potential of anovel electrical impedance sensor for q measurement in rocks and to evaluate the effectsof frequency and salinity on the calibration of this device. In this study, only the resistance(R), i.e., the real part of the measured impedance, was investigated because of its directcorrelation with q. Calcarenite, a sedimentary porous rock, was used for the calibration inthe laboratory via the installation of penetration-type probes. The independence of themeasured R from the different frequencies set on the device was checked using a statisticalapproach. The q-R calibration functions obtained for the different saturation solutionshave a power-law dependence with a good degree of correlation. The results highlight boththe strong reproducibility of the experimental data (by using the penetration-type probes)and the suitability of the device for q measurement in calcarenite. The method could beadvantageous for field applications that involve rocks.

Groundwater represents an essential water resource for human purposes, mainly in those areas characterised by a scarcity of surface water and dry climate. Consequently, tools for assessing the groundwater balance are fundamental for its suitable management. The conventional groundwater balance equation, which considers all the natural and human-induced terms of the balance, such as rainfall, withdrawals, irrigation, etc., sometimes lacks of some important terms. One of the terms of the balance that is most difficult assess is the volume of water exchanged with other neighbouring water bodies (subsurface inflow/outflow). In this case, the estimation must be considered as a poor approximation. In this paper, a novel methodology is proposed that is capable of significantly increasing the accuracy of the groundwater balance when subsurface inflows and outflows are unknown. The improvement is accomplished by comparing two corresponding time series of annual groundwater balances assessed by means of different balance models. The first time series is evaluated by means of the conventional balance equation and the second one by directly estimating the groundwater volumes by means of geostatistical methods. Both these models are supposed to lack specific, even though different, information. Their comparison through simple statistical tools allows them to be calibrated and to recover missing average information. A study case is presented considering the inflow/outflow term and the specific yield as missing information for the conventional and the geostatistical approaches, respectively. The study area is the shallow porous aquifer of the Tavoliere di Puglia (South Italy).

Groundwater represents an essential water resource for human purposes, mainly inthose areas characterised by a scarcity of surface water and dry climate. Consequently, tools forassessing the groundwater balance are fundamental for its suitable management. The conventionalgroundwater balance equation, which considers all the natural and human-induced termsof the balance, such as rainfall, withdrawals, irrigation, etc., sometimes lacks of someimportant terms. One of the terms of the balance that is most difficult assess is the volumeof water exchanged with other neighbouring water bodies (subsurface inflow/outflow). In thiscase, the estimation must be considered as a poor approximation. In this paper, a novelmethodology is proposed that is capable of significantly increasing the accuracy of thegroundwater balance when subsurface inflows and outflows are unknown. The improvementis accomplished by comparing two corresponding time series of annual groundwater balancesassessed by means of different balance models. The first time series is evaluated by means ofthe conventional balance equation and the second one by directly estimating the groundwatervolumes by means of geostatistical methods. Both these models are supposed to lack specific,even though different, information. Their comparison through simple statistical tools allowsthem to be calibrated and to recover missing average information. A study case is presentedconsidering the inflow/outflow term and the specific yield as missing information for theconventional and the geostatistical approaches, respectively. The study area is the shallowporous aquifer of the Tavoliere di Puglia (South Italy).

Due to the high wells drilling cost, monitoring sites are usually selected among existing wells; nevertheless, the resulting monitoring network must assure a good assessment of the main characteristics of the considered aquifer. Groundwater managers, need to find a good balance between two conflicting objectives: maximizing monitoring information and minimizing costs. In this paper, a couple of groundwater monitoring optimization methods are presented, related to the local shallow aquifer of the Alimini Lakes, located in Apulia (South-Eastern Italy) where a large number of existing wells have been pinpointed and the need of optimally reducing exists. The proposed methods differ each other for the required amount of prior information. The first proposed method, namely Greedy Deletion, just requires the geographical position of the available sites, while the second, the Simulated Annealing, also requires the knowledge of the spatial law of the considered phenomenon. The managerial need was to halve the number of monitoring sites minimizing the information loss.

The Alimini water system, located in south eastern part of Italy, named Salento peninsula, is constituted from two connected coastal lakes, Alimini Piccolo and Alimini Grande. Specifically, Alimini Piccolo is a small freshwater body, directly fed by rainfall and by shallow porous aquifer through of several springs. From '50s Alimini Piccolo provides the surrounding area with water for agriculture and domestic use. In June 2013, IRSA-CNR started a study concerning the quali-quantitative characterization of the hydrogeological system feeding the Alimini Piccolo, in order to investigate the potential for additional exploiting of the lake as a resource for drinking water. For the purpose, a monitoring system has been set up for an entire hydrological year. Continuous measurements of water level, electrical conductivity and temperature, such as quantitative and qualitative monitoring monthly campaigns both in groundwater and in the lake have been carried out. In order to support the above mentioned surveys, Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) has been carried out to identify geological structures and hydrogeological features, to better understand the system feeding the Alimini Piccolo and to set the boundary conditions of the hydrological model useful to represent the water balance of the lake.

Although Italy boasts an age-old and solid experience in the exploitation of geothermal energy for power generation, very limited was the development regarding the direct uses. However, recently the interest in low enthalpy geothermal energy is growing mainly because, unlike the other kinds of green energies, the geothermal energy suitable for direct uses can be found anytime and almost everywhere. Particular attention should be paid to the open-loop geothermal systems that use groundwater as geothermal fluid. The installation of these kind of geothermal systems is particularly attractive in the coastal areas where, generally, the aquifers are shallow, and often affected by seawater intrusion. In this work an experimental approach was proposed for a detailed characterization of a costal area finalized to exploitation of low enthalpy geothermal resource. A costal karst area near Bari (Southern Italy), extended for about 20 Km2, was investigated. A specifically defined monitoring network, consisting of about 35 wells, was used to monitor groundwater parameters (temperature, water level, electrical conductivity). The influence of an open-loop geothermal systems on the sea water intrusion was also studied by means of a long-term pumping test. The investigated portion of aquifer was found to have a high hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity values, as well as a very short time of recharge, highlighting a good productivity of aquifer. The results of the long pumping test have showed that, the extraction of water does not affect the equilibrium of the aquifer both qualitatively and quantitatively. The high level of contamination observed in groundwater, due to both the presence of urban and industrial pollution and to the seawater intrusion, causes the absence of a strong competition for use of groundwater by making them available for geothermal use.Overall the experimental approach utilized for this study represents a good effort to define a standard methodology in order to characterize a coastal area. This approach reveals useful for a feasibility study to install an open-loop geothermal system, and to support the potential geothermal evaluation.

Sustainable groundwater management requires a thorough knowledge of the behavior of the unsaturated zone. Particularly, the evaluation of the flow rate in the unsaturated zone is important to estimate the travel time of the infiltrated water and dissolved substances in the subsurface and, hence, to quantify the recharge rate and to assess the quality of the subsurface.A quarry of calcarenite near the town of Canosa, in southern Italy, was chosen to perform an integrated hydrogeophysical field study that combines infiltrometer measurements with Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT). Infiltration data were collected using a 0.5-m-diameter metallic infiltrometer ring, which was installed directly on the rock, filled with about 8 L of water. A falling-head test was conducted for many hours, the water level in the ring was monitored with a pressure transducer and a metric rod fixed to the ring. Electrical resistivity measurements were carried out, using the "time-lapse" technique, to observe the dynamics of infiltration/redistribution of water in the vadose zone. Hydrogeophysical data were acquired for long periods to gain a more complete understanding of subsurface flow. The observations were used to independently estimate travel times and infiltration rates using a numerical model.

In the past decade, over-exploitation has led to a de-pletion of water resources, with impact both on quality and quantity. A sustainable groundwater management needs a detailed scientific knowledge of the behaviour of the un-saturated zone. Particularly, the evaluation of the flow-rate in the unsaturated zone is important to estimate the travel time of the infiltrated water in the subsurface and, hence, to assess the recharge rate and groundwater vul-nerability. A quarry of calcarenite near the town of Canosa, in South Italy, has been chosen to perform the field tests using an integrated hydrogeophysical approach, combin-ing infiltrometer measurements with electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). The infiltration data were collected using a metallic infiltrometer ring of 0.5 m in diameter, installed directly on the rock, filled with about 8 L of water. The test was conducted for many hours at falling head condition, and the water level within the ring was measured by means of a pressure transductor and a metric rod fixed to the ring. Simultaneously, electrical resistivity measurements were carried out using "time-lapse" technique, in order to monitor the dynamics of infiltration/redistribution of the water in the unsaturated zone. Hydrogeophysical data have been acquired for sev-eral hours to obtain a reliable hydrogeological model of the subsurface investigated. Field-saturated hydraulic conductivity has been de-termined for the calcarenite, and ERT surveys support these results.

The interest in the low enthalpy geothermal resources is growing, owing to its wide availability, and the possibility of overcoming the problems related to energy storage. Among the low enthalpy plants, the installation in coastal areas of the open-loop groundwater heat pump (GWHP) systems, that use groundwater as the geothermal fluid, is particularly attractive because of the presence of shallow aquifers. Nevertheless, these aquifers are often affected by seawater intrusion, so strict monitoring before GWHP installation is needed to check the feasibility of the plant.This work reports a detailed quali-quantitative characterization of a costal aquifer, in Southern Italy, for its exploitation as a very low enthalpy geothermal resource. The main groundwater parameters were monitored to assess the groundwater suitability to be used as geothermal fluid. A long-term pumping test, simulating the designed open-loop GWHP system, was performed to evaluate its potential impact on seawater intrusion. The results revealed that the open-loop GWHP plant do not affect the quali-quantitative equilibrium of the studied coastal aquifer. Furthermore, the study demonstrated that the used methodological approach is proper for the early assessment of the feasibility of the GWHP plant without affecting the seawater intrusion processes, and with minimum impact.

Compared to other European countries, there is limited use of geothermal resources in Italy for the heating and cooling of buildings (UGI-CNG, 2007). Low-temperature geothermal resources, which can be readily used for this purpose, can be found throughout Italy. The high cost and scarcity of fossil fuels have promoted the increased use of natural heat for a number of direct applications. Just as for fossil fuels, the exploitation of geothermal energy should consider its environmental impact and sustainability.Particular attention should be paid to so-called open loop geothermal systems, which use groundwater as geothermal fluid. From an economic point of view, the implementation of this kind of geothermal system is particularly attractive in coastal areas, which have generally shallow aquifers. The potential problem of seawater intrusion has led to laws that restrict the use of groundwater. The limited availability of freshwater could be a major impediment for the utilization of geothermal resources. We propose a methodology, based on an experimental approach, to characterize a coastal area in order to exploit low-enthalpy geothermal resources. A coastal karst-area near Bari, in Southern Italy, was selected for this purpose.A long-term pumping test was performed to create analog for an open-loop geothermal system. Electrical resistivity measurements were carried out, using "time-lapse" techniques, to monitor the dynamics of the freshwater-seawater interface. The results show that the pumping does not affect the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the aquifer. The electric conductivity values suggest very limited sea water intrusion.

In the framework of VIGOR Project, a national project coordinated by the Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources (CNR-IGG) and sponsored by the Ministry of Economic Development (MiSE), dedicated to the evaluation of geothermal potential in the regions of the Convergence Objective in Italy (Puglia, Calabria, Campania and Sicily), is expected to evaluate the ability of the territory to heat exchange with the ground for air conditioning of buildings. To identify the conditions for the development of low enthalpy geothermal systems collected and organized on a regional scale geological and stratigraphic data useful for the preparation of a specific thematic mapping, able to represent in a synergistic and simplified way the physical parameters (geological, lithostratigraphic, hydrogeological, thermodynamic) that most influence the subsoil behavior for thermal exchange. The litho-stratigraphic and hydrogeological database created for every region led to the production of different cartographic thematic maps, such as the thermal conductivity (lithological and stratigraphical), the surface geothermal flux, the average annual temperature of air, the climate zoning, the areas of hydrogeological restrictions. To obtain a single representation of the geo-exchange potential of the region, the different thematic maps described must be combined together by means of an algorithm, defined on the basis of the SINTACS methodology. The purpose is to weigh the contributions of the involved parameters and to produce a preliminary synthesis map able to identify the territorial use of geothermal heat pump systems, based on the geological characteristics and in agreement with the existing regulatory constraints.

The characterization and modelling of flow and transport through the vadose zone are receiving increased attention in the last years, particularly as regards the pollutant phenomena. Hence water content estimation and its monitoring, from which strongly depend the hydrological processes that occur within the unsaturated zone, is an important task.A number of methods and devices are available for measuring the water content in soils but, usually, they are not usable with the rocks too and very few are the attempts to verify their applicability.The installation of the probes is the main difficulty in applying the devices for water content estimation in rocks, because the installation procedure has to ensure a good contact between the rock and the sensor in order to reduce the uncertainty due to the gap effects. In this study a non-traditional method, known as electrical impedance spectrometry (EIS), was used. Using the new apparatus Z-meter, developed within the European International Project E!3838 of EUREKA Program, the electrical impedance in complex form and its changes over time were monitored in order to verify the suitability of the device for water content estimation in rocks. Both the real component of impedance (resistance R) and the imaginary component (capacitive reactance X) were independently investigate.One kind of stainless steel probes have been installed into samples of calcarenite, a sedimentary rock coming from a quarry located in Canosa (South of Italy). The relationship between the output device and water content was investigated within a wide frequency range (from 100Hz to 10000Hz), using different water solutions with different electrical conductivity (EC) values. Due to the influence of temperature variation on all indirect moisture measurement methods, the experimentation was performed in a temperature controlled room provided with a ventilation system.Correlating the real component of the impedance with the directly measured water content, determined using a gravimetric method, functions of exponential type, with a good correlation coefficient, were obtained for different water solutions.The independence of the real component of impedance to changing the frequencies is confirmed; any frequency can be used. On the contrary, the sensitivity of resistance to changing the EC value of the solution used for sample saturation is evident.The analysis of reactance data confirms a strong dependence on the applied frequency. The reactance outputs are not continuously recorded for all investigated range of water contents (from saturation to dry) but appear in correspondence of water contents which depend not only on applied frequency but also on the EC of the solution used to saturated the sample. Particularly, higher frequency and lower EC of solution seem to assure reactance values in a wider range of water content.This evidence, together with a lower precision of the device on reactance outputs, makes it more diffi

The main goal of this study is to evaluate the reliability of the Mise-a-la-Masse (MALM) technique associated with saline tracer tests for the characterization of groundwater flow direction and velocity. The experimental site is located in the upper part of the Alento River alluvial plain (Campania Region, Southern Italy). In this paper we present the hydrogeological setting, the experimental setup and the relevant field results. Subsequently, we compare those data against the simulated results obtained with a 3D resistivity model of the test area, coupled with a model describing the Advection - Dispersion equation for continuous tracer injection. In particular, we calculate a series of 3D forward solutions starting from a reference model, all derived from electrical tomography results, but taking into consideration different values of mean flow velocity and directions. Each electrical resistivity 3D model is used to produce synthetic voltage maps for MALM surveys. Finally, the synthetic MALM voltage maps are compared with the ones measured in the field in order to assess the information content of the MALM dataset with respect to the groundwater field characteristics. The results demonstrate that the information content of the MALM data is sufficient to define important characteristics of the aquifer geometry and properties. This work shows how a combination of three-dimensional time-lapse modeling of flow, tracer transport and electrical current can substantially contribute towards a quantitative interpretation of MALM measurements during a saline tracer test. This approach can thus revive the use of MALM as a practical, low cost field technique for tracer test monitoring and aquifer hydrodynamic characterization. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.