Sjogren's syndrome (SS) is characterized by the features of systemic autoimmunity and exocrine gland dysfunction and inflammation. Deregulated cytokine production is known to contribute to the etiology of SS but the underlying molecular mechanism is still remains to be unclear. TNF-alpha-induced protein 3 or TNFAIP3 is involved in the negative feedback regulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kappa B) signaling in response to specific pro-inflammatory stimuli in different cell types. To define the contribution of TNFAIP3 to SS, the levels of TNFAIP3 expression in human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) derived from active primary SS patients were analyzed. Histological analysis was performed on paraffin-embedded human Sjogren's samples and healthy tissues. In separate experiments, immunofluorescence staining, western blot analysis and quantitative real-time PCR for TNFAIP3 was conducted in SGEC from SS and healthy subjects. Our findings clearly demonstrate changes in levels of the protein and gene expression between healthy controls and SS patients, depicting a very weak positivity for TNFAIP3 in SS samples. TNFAIP3 was found down-regulated in SGECs derived from SS patients in comparison with controls, and the cells with down-regulated TNFAIP3 expression exhibited enhanced NF-kappa B activities. In addition, to investigate the role of TNFAIP3 in the activation of NF-kappa B, we depleted TNFAIP3 expression by siRNA in healthy SGEC after treatment with or without TNF-alpha. Intriguingly, the silencing of TNFAIP3 by its siRNA in healthy SGEC increased NF-kappa B activation that could explain the deregulated cytokines production observed in SS.

Chemokines, small pro-inflammatory cytokines, are involved in migration of inflammatory cells in inflamed tissues and recent studies established their role in angiogenesis, hematopoiesis, cancer and autoimmune conditions. Growth related oncogene-alpha (GRO-α), a member of the CXC chemokine family, and its receptor CXCR2 are involved in the inflammatory processes. Since there is no previous report that supports a possible role of GRO-α/CXCR2 receptor complex during inflammation and neovascularization existing in the autoimmune disease Sjögren's syndrome (SS), in this study, we examined CXCR2 and its ligand GRO-α expression in SS tissues. Immunohistochemistry revealed that GRO-α and its receptor CXCR2 were expressed at high levels in diseased tissues compared to healthy controls. In addition, human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) cultures were submitted to a pro-inflammatory microenvironment using cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α in order to demonstrate that CXCR2 may change its initial expression pattern to another under inflammatory condition. The data show an increased expression of CXCR2 depending on the inflammatory cytokine used in culture in a time-dependent manner. Furthermore, silencing of the pro-angiogenic chemokine GRO-α is proportionally correlated with decreased expression of CXCR2 in pro-inflammatory cytokine-stimulated SGEC indicating the GRO-α/CXCR2 complex as a novel therapeutic target for the chronic inflammatory disease Sjögren's syndrome

A decreased saliva production occurs in primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS), an autoimmune disease characterized by oral and ocular dryness due to dysfunction of the lacrimal and salivary glands (SGs). Since water movement is involved in saliva secretion, the expression, localization and function of the water channels aquaporins (AQPs) have been extensively studied in SGs. To date, the presence of AQP4 remains controversial and ambiguous in human SGs. We investigated by immunohistochemistry, high-resolution confocal microscopy and quantitative image analysis, western blot and real-time RT-PCR, the presence of the AQP4 gene and the distribution of AQP4 protein in healthy controls and pSS SGs biopsies. Through the immunohistochemical analysis we demonstrated that AQP4 presence is confined to the basal region of acini, to the lateral and apical membrane of intercalated and striated ducts in both control and pSS glands. The most striking observation was the discovery of AQP4 localization in myoepithelial cells (MECs) that surround acini lobules and intercalated ducts, and the demonstration of AQP4-down-regulated immunoreactivity in pSS MECs. Our studies suggest that the capacity for water flow across the membrane of MECs may be altered in pSS, identifying AQP4 as a promising new therapeutic agent to treat xerostomia

Background: Growth related oncogene-alpha (GRO-α), a member of the CXC chemokine family, and its receptor CXC chemokine receptor 2 (CXCR2) are involved in the inflammatory processes. In many models of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, blockade of CXCR2 substantially reduces leukocyte recruitment, tissue damage and mortality. There are evidences that the CXCR2 expression can also be regulated, by enzymatic cleavage via metalloproteinases. Actually, the ADAM17 inhibitors are under development for the treatment of a variety of inflammatory autoimmune disorders. In addition, the ADAM17 activation was recently associated with the chronic inflammatory condition observed in Sjögren's syndrome (SS). Objectives: To better understand the molecular mechanisms by which the GRO-α /CXCR2 system is involved in the SS inflammatory condition and clarify the role of ADAM17 activation in the modulation of the GRO-α/CXCR2 chemokine system in epithelial cells (SGEC) from SS salivary glands. Methods: RT-PCR, Real Time-PCR, western blot, ELISA, flow cytometry techniques were employed to examine the expression of GRO-α /CXCR2 system in presence or not of the ADAM17 inhibitor TAPI-1 in salivary gland epithelial cells cultures from SS patients. Results: The CXCR2 overexpression observed in SS SGEC resulted dramatically decreased by ADAM17 inhibitor TAPI-1. In addition, comparing the expression levels of ADAM17 in healthy SGEC in presence or not of GRO-α treatment, we observed that GRO-α, dose-dependently, influences ADAM17 activation, effect that was inhibited by blocking the interaction of GRO-α with its CXCR2 receptor. Conclusions: Our data show for the first time that ADAM17 has an important role in GRO-α/CXCR2 system activity regulation, suggesting that regulating CXCR2/ADAM17 interaction could be an attractive therapeutic target in SS.

Receptors for the Fc fragment of immunoglobulin G (FcγRs) are important molecules not only to mediate and control the effectors' functions of IgG antibodies, but they also control the autoimmunity-tolerance balance in the periphery. In humans, three different types of FcγRs, belonging to the Ig gene superfamily, have been identified; FcγRI (cluster of differentiation (CD64), FcγRII (CD32) and FcγRIII (CD16). A wide range of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, such as vasculitis, glomerulonephritis, and autoimmune hemolytic anemia, seems to be mediated, in part, by FcγRs. Recent findings supposed that, under certain conditions, FcγRs are involved in the penetration of antibodies into cells and FcγRs constitute one of the main effector mechanisms through which autoantibodies exert their action. In this review, we concentrate on the role of human FcγRs in autoantibodies penetration and summarize the current knowledge on the structure, ligand binding capacity and their role in autoimmunity and pathogenic effect of autoantibodies.

AIMS: To study the importance of IκBα in NF-κB signal transduction, we analysed the IκBα expression in monocytes from Sjögren's syndrome (SS) patients versus healthy controls. METHODS: Monocytes were obtained from the peripheral blood of 30 SS patients and 23 healthy subjects. IκBα expression was studied by semiquantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), real-time PCR, immunoblotting, flow cytometry and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). RESULTS: Analysis of the gene and protein expression profiles of SS monocytes revealed a down-regulation of IκBα, and in all the Sjögren's syndrome cases examined, serum IκBα levels were significantly decreased in comparison with controls. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings clearly demonstrate changes in the levels of IκBα in SS monocytes, suggesting that the attenuated expression of IκBα could contribute to the deregulation of NF-κB pathways in the SS pathogenesis. Decreased expression of IκBα may specifically amplify cytokines production and inflammatory response linked to Sjögren's syndrome.

Some Herpes-, Pox- and Irido-virus genes (and the controversial Stealth virus gene) share significant nucleotide sequences with vertebrate chemokine receptors (CKR) genes. In some instances the viral reading frame is the same as in the CKRs, giving rise to similar protein products. In other cases the reading frame is different and the viral protein product is not CKR-like. In yet other instances the segmental alignments between CKR genes and viral genes are more limited. In this article we discuss in detail only the more highly significant alignments. We propose the hypothesis that both CKR and CKR-like viral genes originated from a common ancestral gene. This older ancestor may have differentiated into two sequences, one giving rise to the group of extant CKR genes with relatively low levels of similarity with viruses, and the other to the other extant CKRs and the CKR-like viral products. The two extant proteins of the CKR and viral groups which share the maximum amino acid identities are the human CCR3 and the E1 of the Equid herpes virus 2, with a continuous alignment coverage of 73% of the viral molecule. It is thus proposed that the ancestral sequence giving rise to both CKRs and CKR-like viral products may have been similar to the extant human CCR3 and E1 Equid herpes virus 2.

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a chronic autoimmune exocrine disease associated with variable lymphocytic infiltration of the affected organs (primarily salivary and lachrymal glands). To investigate the potential implication of nerve growth factor-β (NGF-β) and its high affinity receptor tyrosine kinase receptor A (TrkA) in the regulation of pSS inflammatory responses, we studied their expression in the human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) cultures from pSS minor salivary glands (MSG) biopsies and their relationship with histopathological disease parameters. Here, we demonstrated an increased expression of the NGF-β/TrkA system in pSS SGEC, correlated with the MSG inflammation grade. The results demonstrate that the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 enhance NGF-β production; on the contrary, NGF-β production was reduced in the presence of both Raf-1 kinase and MEK inhibitors. Furthermore, TNF-α/IL-6 treatment increased ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Inhibition of the EGF/EGFR system also decreased NGF-β release by pSS SGEC, indicating that the chronic inflammatory condition characteristic of pSS enhances NGF-β production via EGFR/Raf-1/MEK/ERK pathway activation

Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is an autoimmune disease and the second most common chronic systemic rheumatic disorder. Prevalence of primary SS in the general population has been estimated to be approximately 1–3%, whereas secondary SS has been observed in 10–20% of patients with rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and scleroderma. Despite this, its exact aetiology and pathogenesis are largely unexplored. Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signalling mechanisms provide central controls in SS, but how these pathways intersect the pathological features of this disease is unclear. The ubiquitin-editing enzyme A20 (tumour necrosis factor-α-induced protein 3, TNFAIP3) serves as a critical inhibitor on NF-κB signalling. In humans, polymorphisms in the A20 gene or a deregulated expression of A20 are often associated with several inflammatory disorders, including SS. Because A20 controls the ectodysplasin-A1 (EDA-A1)/ectodysplasin receptor (EDAR) signalling negatively, and the deletion of A20 results in excessive EDA1-induced NF-κB signalling, this work investigates the expression levels of EDA-A1 and EDAR in SS human salivary glands epithelial cells (SGEC) and evaluates the hypothesis that SS SGEC-specific deregulation of A20 results in excessive EDA1-induced NF-κB signalling in SS. Our approach, which combines the use of siRNA-mediated gene silencing and quantitative pathway analysis, was used to elucidate the role of the A20 target gene in intracellular EDA-A1/EDAR/NF-κB pathway in SS SGEC, holding significant promise for compound selection in drug discovery.

Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha)-converting enzyme (TACE) is a membrane-bound metalloprotease and disintegrin. It is produced by a number of host cells and is known to shed and release cell-bound cytokines, particularly members of the TNF family. No investigations into the regulation of this enzyme by autoantibodies have been reported. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that anti-Ro/SSA autoantibodies, purified from IgG fractions of patients with primary Sjögren's syndrome, are capable to regulate TACE expression and activation in human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC). We also evaluated the potential physiological and therapeutic consequences of TNF-alpha blocking by the biological agent adalimumab, the first fully human (100% human peptide sequences) therapeutic anti-TNF-alpha antibody, on post-translational regulation of TACE. Taken together, our results show a dose-dependent increase in TACE expression in anti-Ro/SSA Abs-treated SGEC, followed by internalization, pro-domain shedding and activation of TACE protein. Adalimumab treatment brought TACE expression to levels than those observed in untreated SGEC. These findings, showing the presence of autoantibodies-dependent mechanisms by which TACE levels are regulated in human SGECs, may have implications in the context of current investigations on the pathological role of autoantibodies.

Sjögren's syndrome (SS) is an autoimmune disease characterized by an inflammatory mononuclear infiltration and the destruction of epithelial cells of the lachrymal and salivary glands. The aetiology is unknown. The expression "autoimmune epithelitis" has been proposed as an alternative to SS, in view of the emerging central role of the epithelial cells in the disease pathogenesis. At the biomolecular level, the epithelial cells play an important role in triggering the autoimmune condition via antigen presentation, apoptosis, and chemokine and cytokines release. Inflammation and angiogenesis are frequently coupled in the pathological conditions associated to autoimmune diseases, and an angiogenic imbalance contributes to the pathogenesis of a number of inflammatory disorders. This work reviews the current knowledge of the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of the inflammatory reactions that characterize SS. The literature and our data on the role of angiogenesis in the pathophysiology of the disease are discussed.

Amphiregulin (AREG) is a well-characterized member of the epidermal growth factor (EGF) family and is one of the ligands of the EGF receptor (EGFR). AREG plays a key role in mammalian development and in the control of branching morphogenesis in various organs. Furthermore, AREG participates in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes activating the major intracellular signalling cascades governing cell survival, proliferation and motility. In this article, we review current advances in exocrine glands morphogenesis, focusing on the salivary gland, and discuss the essential aspects of AREG structure, function and regulation, and its differential role within the EGFR family of ligands. Finally, we identify emerging aspects in AREG research applied to mammary gland development and the salivary gland autoimmune disease, Sjo¨gren’s syndrome.

The tumor-necrosis-factor-converting-enzyme (TACE)-TNF-α-Amphiregulin (AREG) axis plays an important pathogenic role in inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. However, the pathological roles of these proteins in the chronic autoimmune disease Sjögren's syndrome (SS) remain to be elucidated. It is known that the TACE-AREG axis is clearly part of a larger cascade of signals that starts with the activation of Furin, responsible for maturation of TACE that, in turn, determines the production of active TNF-α, directly involved in the up-regulation of AREG expression. This study showed that Furin, TACE, TNF-α, and AREG proteins, detected in acinar and ductal cells of human salivary glands from SS patients, increased remarkably in comparison with biopsies of labial salivary glands from healthy controls. The changes in Furin, TACE, TNF- α, and AREG proteins' level detected in salivary glands biopsies of SS patients could be responsible for pro-inflammatory cytokines overexpression characterizing Sjögren's syndrome.

The chemokine GRO-α and its receptor CXCR2 are associated with the chronic inflammation in Sjögren's syndrome (SS). To better understand the molecular mechanisms by which the GRO-α/CXCR2 system is involved in the SS inflammatory condition, our studies were designed to clarify the role of ADAM17 activation in the modulation of the GRO-α/CXCR2 chemokine system in epithelial cells (SGEC) from SS salivary glands. The CXCR2 overexpression observed in SS SGEC was dramatically decreased by ADAM17 inhibitor TAPI-1. In addition, comparing the expression levels of ADAM17 in healthy SGEC in presence or not of GRO-α treatment, we observed that GRO-α dose-dependently influences ADAM17 activation, an effect that was inhibited by blocking the interaction of GRO-α with its CXCR2 receptor. Our data show for the first time that ADAM17 has an important role in GRO-α/CXCR2 system activity regulation, suggesting that regulating CXCR2/ADAM17 interaction could be an attractive therapeutic target in SS.

Background: The transcription factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway has long been considered a prototypical pro-inflammatory signalling pathway, largely based on the role of NF-κB in the expression of pro-inflammatory genes including cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules. The NF-κB pathway does indeed regulate pro-inflammatory cytokine production, leukocyte recruitment, or cell survival, which are important contributors to the inflammatory response during the development of autoimmune diseases. Although aberrant regulation in the NF-κB signal transduction pathway involving the inhibitory IκBa was observed in several autoimmune disorders, thereis presently nopublication investigating the alteration of IκBα expression in human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) from SS patients. Objectives: In this study we examine the expression of the NF-κB inhibitory protein termed IκBα in SGEC comparing it with SGEC from healthy controls, to test the hypothesis that an altered expression of IκBα occurs in SGEC from SS biopsies. Methods: RT-PCR, Real Time-PCR, western blot, immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry were employed to examine the expression IκBα in SS biopsies in comparison with salivary gland biopsies from healthy subjects. Results: Changes in the levels of IκBαin SS SGEC in comparison with healthy subjects were demonstrated, suggesting that the attenuated expression of IκBα could contribute to the deregulation of NF-κB pathways in SS. Given its key function in the fine-tuning of NF-κB signalling, it was to be expected that defects in IκBα expression or function could lead to chronic inflammation and tissue damage. In line with gene and protein analysis results, we delineated the changes in IκBα both at gene and protein expression levels, finding a clear reduction of IκBα in tissue samples from active Sjögren's syndrome patients in comparison with healthy subjects. In biopsy specimens, we found a moderate positive staining for the IκBα protein in healthy controls examined in theimmunohistochemical study, located in the cytoplasm of acini and ductal cells. Conversely, SS salivary gland biopsies elicited a weak cytoplasmic positivity for IκBα. Conclusions: The analysis of IκBα expression at salivary gland epithelial cell level could be a potential new hallmark of SS progression and sustain a rationale to more deeply investigate the therapeutic potential of specific NF-κB inhibitors in SS

IL-15 is a key regulatory cytokine that shares many biological properties with IL-2. Recently, it has been shown that IL-15 could be up-regulated in T cell-mediated inflammatory disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel diseases. However, the role and expression of IL-15 in the inflammatory autoimmune disease Sjögren's syndrome (SS) has not been investigated. In the present study we evaluated the expression of IL-15 mRNA and protein in minor salivary gland (MSG) biopsy specimens and in human salivary gland epithelial cell (SGEC) cultures obtained from patients with primary SS (pSS) and compared their expression with that seen in normal healthy control subjects. IL-15 gene and protein analysis revealed that SGEC are able to produce IL-15. Results obtained demonstrated that the number of IL-15+ cultured SGEC was significantly higher in cells derived from patients with pSS in comparison with SGEC from healthy subjects; similar results were obtained for IL-15 immunoreactivity by using immunohistochemistry that revealed a strong expression both in acinar and in ductal cells from pSS MSG. These studies could provide a rational basis to determine whether IL-15 could be a good candidate for anti-cytokine therapy in chronic inflammatory pSS diseases.

Angiogenesis is a common finding in chronic inflammatory diseases; however, its role in Sjögren's syndrome (SS) remains to be elucidated. Previous SS studies have demonstrated an increase in VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 system expression in minor salivary gland (MSG) biopsies from patients with SS, but differences in the new blood vessel formation between the different grades of disease severity have not been reported. Therefore, experiments were performed to demonstrate angiogenesis during different phases of primary SS (pSS) and to define the relationship between the microvessel density (MVD), macrophage infiltration and histiocyte distribution in SS MSG inflammatory lesions. In this series of experiments, immunohistochemistry was used to examine angiogenesis in serial sections of pSS MSG. Patients with pSS were classified accordingly with the grade of inflammatory lesions as I = low-grade (low focus score of 1 or 2), II = intermediate-grade (focus score of 3–6) and III = extensive inflammation in the MSG (high focus score of 12). Histological examination demonstrated that the MVD increased with the severity of the inflammatory lesions, and in addition, we found an increased infiltration of inflammatory and pro-angiogenic cells.These findings reveal that angiogenesis is intimately involved in the progression of pSS, may be central to the propagation of the chronic immune response observed in pSS and could represent a novel potential biomarker of pSS disease activity.

Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) is a transmembrane co-receptor for members of the vascular endothelial growth factor family. Recent studies revealed an important role of NRP1 in angiogenesis and progression of many diseases. The role of NRP1 in the development of Sjögren's syndrome (SS), one of the most common rheumatic diseases, has not yet been investigated. Molecular studies and protein expression techniques were performed to elucidate the gene and protein expression profile of NRP1 in human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) from primary SS. We used human microarrays and transient transfection with a mutant form of the negative inhibitory κBα proteins (IκBαDN) to investigate whether selective inhibition of nuclear Factor-κB (NF-κB) improves NRP1-mediated pro-angiogenic factors release from SS SGEC. The selective NRP1 function inhibition with an antibody to human NRP1, was employed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of targeting NRP1. We demonstrate that NRP1 is expressed in SGEC of both human healthy biopsies and in SS samples, and increased NRP1 expression in SS SGEC is significantly associated with pro-angiogenic factors release. Neutralizing anti-NRP1 antibody decreased pro-angiogenic factor production from SS SGEC and blocking NF-κB activation could be a way to inhibit NRP1-mediated angiogenesis in Sjögren's syndrome.

A number of proteins which are needed for the building of new immunodeficiency virus type 1 virions can only be translated from unspliced virus-derived pre-mRNAs. These unspliced mRNAs are shuttled through the nuclear pores reaching the cytosol when bound to the viral protein Rev. However, as a cellular co-factor Rev requires a Rev-binding protein of the AGFG family (nucleoporin-related Arf-GAP domain and FG repeats-containing proteins). In this article we address the evolution of the AGFGs by analyzing the first section of the coding mRNAs. This contains a "core module" which can be traced from Drosophilae to fish, amphibia, birds, and mammals, including man. In the subfamily of AGFG1 molecules the estimated conservation from Drosophilae to primates is 67% (with limited gaps). In some Drosophilae the core module is preceded by a long stretch of more than 300 coding nucleotides, but this additional module is absent in other Drosophilae and in all AGFG1s of other species. The AGFG2 molecules emerged later in evolution, possibly deriving from a duplication of AGFG1s. AGFG2s, present in mammals only, exhibit an additional module of about 50 coding nucleotides ahead of the core module, which is significantly less conserved (54%, with more remarkable gaps). This additional module does not seem to have homologies with the additional module of Drosophilae nor with the precoding section of AGFG1s. Interestingly, in birds a highly re-edited form of the AGFG1 core module (Gallus gallus, Galliformes) coexists with a typical form of the AGFG1 core module (Taeniopygia guttata, Passeriformes).

Paget's disease of bone is a chronic disorder of unknown etiology that can result in enlarged and misshapen bones. The excessive breakdown and formation of bone tissue cause affected bones to weaken, resulting in pain, misshapen bones, fractures, and arthritis in the joints. In most cases the diagnosis is achieved casually, as only 5% of patients develop burning pain at the level of affected bones. As regards therapy, the use of anti-reabsorbing drugs, such as bisphosphonates and calcitonin, appears reasonable. Given the disease pathogenesis, the administration of denosumab and tocilizumab may be a valuable alternative to inhibit RANK expression, and thus osteoclast formation, and interleukin-6 production

We describe a case of Osteonecrosis of the Jaw (ONJ) that developed in a 65-year-old Caucasian woman with osteopenia and other risk factors who was receiving low doses of oral bisphosphonate therapy (ibandronate, 150 mg monthly). Computed tomography (CT), panoramic radiographs (OPT), 99mTc-Sn-MDP scintigraphy, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were performed to study the diseased area; cytological examination also revealed the presence of suppurative material around the area of exposed bone. A diagnosis of bisphosphonate-related osteonecrosis of the jaw complicated by osteomyelitis was made. The patient was prescribed a drug protocol consisting of metronidazole 250 mg 2 times daily, chlorhexidine mouthwashes 3 times daily and chewing exercises for two months. Ibandronate was stopped and replaced with strontium ranelate. The symptoms improved and the patient is still under close follow-up. Assessment of the benefits versus risks is particularly necessary in patients with several risk factors to ascertain their eligibility for treatment with antiresorptive drugs and when this is not possible to choose alternative medications.

Prolonged inflammation can be detrimental because it may cause host toxicity and tissue damage. Indeed, excessive production of inflammatory cytokines is often associated with many autoimmune diseases. In this study we demonstrate that the anti-Ro/SSA autoantibodies (Abs) stimulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and IL-8 by human healthy salivary gland epithelial cells (healthy SGEC). The secretion of these cytokines is due to amphiregulin (AREG) that is overexpressed in healthy SGEC treated with anti-Ro/SSA Abs and in Sjögren's syndrome. We have discovered that the up-regulation of AREG occurs through TNF-alpha produced following anti-Ro/SSA Abs treatment. The gene silencing technique was used to study the AREG-TNF-alpha-IL-6/IL-8 secretion pathway, demonstrating that: (i) TNF-alpha gene silencing provokes a significant decrease of proinflammatory cytokines production and AREG expression in anti-Ro/SSA Abs-treated healthy SGEC; (ii) AREG gene silencing has a potent inhibitory effect on TNF-alpha-induced IL-6 and IL-8 secretion in healthy SGEC treated with anti-Ro/SSA Abs. These findings indicate that TACE-mediated AREG shedding plays a critical role in TNF-alpha-induced IL-6 and IL-8 secretion by the human healthy salivary gland epithelial cells, suggesting that this may be one of the possible intracellular mechanisms involved in the salivary glands inflammatory response in Sjögren's syndrome.

Humans are widely exposed to Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), a proven multi-host chronic enteric pathogen that has recently been linked to autoimmune diabetes. In the present study we used a MAP species-specific polymerase chain reaction with the insertion element IS900-specific probe to detect MAP infection in members of the same family suffering from Hashimoto's thyroiditis

Apoptosis of the acinar and ductal epithelial cells of the salivary glands has been proposed as a mechanism possibly responsible for the impairment of the secretory function in Sjögren's syndrome, an organ-specific autoimmune disorder characterized by destruction of these glandular structures. The presence of serum autoantibodies (Abs) directed against the ribonucleoproteic antigens Ro and La is one of the classification criteria used to identify Sjögren patients, and there is increasing evidence of the direct involvement of Abs in tissue pathogenesis. Our recent report demonstrated that anti-Ro and anti-La Abs are able to trigger the extrinsic pathway of apoptosis in the human salivary gland cells. To better understand how the anti-Ro and anti-La Abs exert their apoptotic effect, human caspase-8 gene expression was examined in primary human salivary gland epithelial cell (SGEC) cultures established from biopsies of labial minor salivary glands. To measure mRNA expression changes of initiating caspase-8, the real-time polymerase chain reaction was employed. This was combined with western blot to study the activation of caspase-8 detecting the cleaved form of caspase-8 and the cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, downstream consequences of caspases activation. Data obtained suggest that the anti-Ro and anti-La Abs determine a transcriptional up-regulation and activation of caspase-8. Study of the mRNA in SGEC experimental model may provide insight into the signal transduction pathway stimulated by anti-nuclear autoantibodies

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by an epithelium injury surrounded by dense lymphocytic infiltrates. The conditions for the long-term maintenance of human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) from pSS patients, and a co-culture system with pSS lymphocytes were used to assess the effect of Rituximab (RTX) on the inflammatory condition and progression in pSS. Quantitative Real-Time PCR, genes and proteins Array analysis, Western blot, flow cytometry, siRNAs transfection and NF-kB DNA binding assays were used as methods. Supporting the RTX's benefits, this study demonstrates that RTX decreases NF-κB activity and interrupts NF-κB signalling pathway through the up-regulation of the Raf-1 kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP). RKIP overexpression down-regulates interleukins, their receptors and the expression of genes encodes proteins that attracted lymphocytes. RKIP gene silencing leads to significantly increased expression and/or release of pro-inflammatory mediators supporting that RKIP expression could be involved in the suppression of NF-κB activation in pSS SGEC.

Diagnosis and therapeutic strategies in Sjögren's syndrome (SS) might greatly benefit of the present multidisciplinary approach to studying the molecular pathogenesis of the disease. A deregulated inflammatory response has been described in the SS. The research in the last years sheds light on the importance of the NF-κB pathway regulating the pro-inflammatory cytokine production and leukocyte recruitment. These are important contributors to the inflammatory response during the development of SS. In this study we examine the expression of the NF-κB inhibitory protein termed IκBα in salivary glands epithelial cells (SGEC) comparing it with SGEC from healthy controls, to test the hypothesis that an altered expression of IκBα occurs in SGEC from SS biopsies. Real-Time PCR, western blot and immunohistochemistry demonstrated that the expression level of IκBα was significantly lower in SS with respect to healthy controls leading to an increased NF-κB activity. Our results suggest that the analysis of IκBα expression at salivary gland epithelial cell level could be a potential new hallmark of SS progression and sustain a rationale to more deeply investigate the therapeutic potential of specific NF-κB inhibitors in SS

Chronic exposure to solar UVB radiation damages skin, increasing the risk to develop cancer. Hence the identification of compounds with a photoprotective efficacy is essential. This study examined the role of saponins derived from Tribulus terrestris L. (TT) on the modulation of apoptosis in normal human keratinocytes (NHEK) exposed to physiological doses of UVB and to evaluate their antitumoral properties. In NHEK, TT saponins attenuate UVB-induced programmed cell death through inhibition of intrinsic apoptotic pathway. In squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) TT saponins do not make the malignant keratinocytes more resistant to UVB and determine an enhanced apoptotic response. The photoprotective effect of TT saponins is tightly correlated to the enhancement of NER genes expression and the block of UVB-mediated NF-κB activation. Collectively, our study shows experimental evidence that TT has a preventive efficacy against UVB-induced carcinogenesis and the molecular knowledge on the mechanisms through which TT saponins regulate cell death suggests great potential for TT to be developed into a new medicine for cancer patient

We explore the involvement of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α)-converting enzyme (TACE) in vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptor 2 (VEGFR2) (VEGF-A/VEGFR2)-mediated angiogenesis in Sjögren's syndrome (SS), one of the most common autoimmune rheumatic diseases. To test the hypothesis that SS autoantibodies (Abs) regulate VEGF-A/VEGFR2 expression by a TACE-dependent nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation pathway, their effects on the expression and activation of the VEGF-A/TACE/VEGFR2/NF-κB pathway were determined in human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC). An enhanced angiogenesis in SS salivary gland biopsies was observed, associated with an increased VEGF-A expression and activation of VEGF-A/VEGFR2 signaling. Human cytokine array analysis of the pro-inflammatory and pro-angiogenic protein response in SGEC treated with SS Abs revealed an overexpression of multiple pro-angiogenic factors. TACE RNA knockdown, the use of anti-VEGF-A monoclonal antibody and the inhibition of NF-κB activity significantly abrogated the release of pro-angiogenic factors, demonstrating that VEGF-A/TACE/VEGFR2/NF-κB axis dysfunction may be contributory to pathogenesis and exacerbation of this autoimmune condition.

We explore the association of the inflammatory gene expression profile observed in the chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder Sjögren's syndrome (SS) with changes in TNF-α converting enzyme (TACE), tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and nuclear factor (NF)-κB levels showing that pathways that include TNF-α signaling converge on NF-κB contributing to exacerbate the diseases. The treatment of human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGECs) with SS anti-Ro/SSA autoantibodies (Abs) result in a progressive increase in NF-κB-DNA binding, that includes a marked enhancement in NF-κB subunit p65 protein-DNA binding. A human cytokine multi-analyte array demonstrated that the NF-κB proinflammatory target genes, increased by anti-Ro/SSA Abs treatment, includes CXC chemokines (CXCL1, CXCL6 and CXCL9), CC chemokines (CCL2, CCL13 and CCL20), interleukins (IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-1F8, IL-6, IL-8, IL-9, IL-13, IL-17 and IL-22) and their receptors (IL-1RN, IL-10Rα, IL-13Rα, CCR1, CCR2, CCR3, CCR4 and CXCR1). Blockade of TACE through the use of the specific inhibitor TAPI-1 regulates proinflammatory cytokines production in SGEC treated with anti-Ro/SSA Abs inhibiting NF-κB nuclear translocation and activation. To further investigate the role of NF-κB on anti-Ro/SSA Abs-determined proinflammatory gene expression, we used the inhibitory protein IκB-α dominant negative super-repressor as inhibitor of NF-κB-DNA binding, demonstrating that transfection with dominant-negative IκB-α in anti-Ro/SSA-treated SGEC determined a marked reduction of proinflammatory cytokines gene expression. Although further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms underlying SS, our results demonstrate that SS Abs exert their pathogenic effects via triggering the TACE/TNF-α/NF-κB axis.

Primary Sjögren's syndrome (pSS) is a chronic autoimmune disorder that particularly compromises the function of exocrine glands. The pathogenetic mechanisms of this autoimmune exocrinopathy have not been fully elucidated. Since increasing evidence actually suggests that the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) pathway has a major impact on the inflammatory/immune reactions of the epithelial cells, in the apparent effort of enhancing innate immune defense while opposing overactivation of pro-inflammatory functions, the focus of the work presented here is clarify whether the EGFR-extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathway plays a role in the pro-inflammatory responses mounted by pSS salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC). Investigations revealed that the EGFR-mediated activation of the downstream effectors ERK1/2 in pSS SGEC appeared to require ADAM17-dependent release of the endogenous EGFR ligand amphiregulin and transactivation of the EGFR. Moreover, blockade of amphiregulin bioactivity using a neutralizing Ab significantly reduced EGFR transactivation and ERK1/2 phosphorylation. In addition, pSS SGEC treated with the specific ADAM17 inhibitor TAPI-1 and with the EGFR inhibitor AG1478 exhibited deactivated AREG/EGFR/ERK signaling pathway and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines released.

Osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder characterized by compromised bone strength predisposing to an increased risk of fractures that affects both cortical bone and trabecular bone. Osteoporosis may be either primary or secondary. Among the secondary forms, the glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis is most common form that occurs, regardless of age, sex, and even with low doses of glucocorticoid.

Novel biologic therapies targeted against specific components of the immune system, including blockade of TNF-α have revolutionized therapeutic approaches to inflammatory conditions and systemic inhibitors of TNF-α have been approved for the treatment of a wide variety of autoimmune diseases. No studies aimed to elucidate the effects of anti-TNF-α blockers on tumour necrosis factor-α convertase (TACE) expression and activation have yet been published. TACE is the principal protease involved in the activation of pro-TNF-α and is a target for anti-TNF-α therapy. Here we focused on regulation of TACE expression in human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) treated by anti-Ro/SSA autoantibodies (autoAbs), characterizing primary Sjögren's syndrome and on the effect of anti-Ro/SSA autoAbs on TACE pro-domain shedding and activation. To test the hypothesis that anti-TNF-α blocker drugs affect TACE expression, we used Adalimumab and Etanercept to block TNF-α and evaluate the effects of these biological agents on post-translational regulation of TACE. Anti-Ro/SSA autoAbs determines TACE pro-domain shedding suggesting that TACE activity is necessary for the release of TNF-α observed in anti-Ro/SSA autoAbs-stimulated cells. The comparative efficacy analysis of the regulation of TACE activity by Adalimumab and Etanercept revealed that Adalimumab appear to be significantly more efficacious than Etanercept in preventing TACE activation caused by anti-Ro/SSA autoAbs. It is intriguing to consider that regulation of TACE may participate in the pathogenic role of autoantibodies and the modulation of TACE expression by TNF-α antagonists might contribute to the beneficial effect of these drugs in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.

Despite recent advancements in the knowledge of the etiology and pathogenic mechanisms, treatment of the autoimmune disease Sjögren’s syndrome (SS) remains mostly empiric and symptom-based, indicating the need for novel therapeutic approaches. Ectodysplasin-A2 (EDA-A2) is a recently isolated member of the tumor necrosis factor superfamily that binds to X-linked ectodermal dysplasia receptor (XEDAR). In this report, we have analyzed the expression and the biological activity of EDA-A2 in human salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) from primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS) patients. We report that EDA-A2 and its receptor XEDAR are overexpressed in pSS SGEC in comparison with healthy individuals and that the EDA-A2/XEDAR system in these cells is involved in the induction of apoptosis via caspases activation. Collectively, our results suggest that EDA-A2/XEDAR system may be a promising agent for the gene therapy of pSS